DHEA

• Hormone balance
• Immune modulation
• Cognitive support
• Bone health

• Mood enhancement
• Libido support
• Metabolic function
• Skin health
• Energy production
• Stress adaptation

DHEA (dehydroepiandrosterone) exerts its biological effects through multiple mechanisms, with its role as a hormone precursor being the most well-established. As the most abundant circulating steroid hormone in humans, DHEA serves as a crucial intermediate in the biosynthetic pathway of sex hormones. After oral administration, DHEA can be converted in peripheral tissues to more potent androgens and estrogens through a series of enzymatic reactions. In men, DHEA is primarily converted to testosterone through the intermediates androstenedione and androstenediol.

This conversion occurs in various tissues including the testes, prostate, hair follicles, and adipose tissue, with the specific enzyme 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase catalyzing the final step. In women, DHEA can be converted to both testosterone and estrogens (primarily estrone and estradiol). The aromatase enzyme, found in ovaries, adipose tissue, skin, and brain, catalyzes the conversion of androgens to estrogens. This dual conversion pathway explains why DHEA supplementation may increase both testosterone and estrogen levels, with the balance varying based on individual factors including sex, age, enzyme activity, and existing hormone levels.

Beyond its role as a hormone precursor, DHEA functions as a neurosteroid with direct effects on the central nervous system. DHEA can modulate the activity of neurotransmitter receptors, particularly GABA-A, NMDA, and sigma receptors. By acting as a positive allosteric modulator of NMDA receptors and a negative modulator of GABA-A receptors, DHEA may enhance cognitive function, memory, and mood. These neurosteroid effects occur independently of its conversion to sex hormones.

DHEA also exhibits significant immunomodulatory properties through multiple mechanisms. It can shift the balance of T-helper cells from Th1 to Th2, potentially benefiting conditions characterized by excessive Th1 activity such as certain autoimmune disorders. DHEA inhibits the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-1β, while enhancing the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-10. Additionally, DHEA can counteract the immunosuppressive effects of glucocorticoids, particularly cortisol, by competing for glucocorticoid receptors and modulating immune cell responsiveness.

The anti-glucocorticoid effects of DHEA extend beyond immune function. By counterbalancing cortisol activity, DHEA may protect various tissues, including neurons, from the potentially damaging effects of chronic stress and elevated cortisol levels. This mechanism may contribute to DHEA’s potential benefits for mood, cognitive function, and stress adaptation. DHEA influences metabolic function through several pathways.

It can enhance insulin sensitivity by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), particularly PPAR-α, which regulate genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism. DHEA also inhibits 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, an enzyme that converts inactive cortisone to active cortisol in metabolic tissues, potentially reducing cortisol’s negative effects on insulin sensitivity. In bone tissue, DHEA stimulates the proliferation and differentiation of osteoblasts (bone-forming cells) while inhibiting osteoclasts (bone-resorbing cells). These effects occur both through its conversion to sex hormones, which are known to support bone health, and through direct mechanisms involving the activation of specific signaling pathways in bone cells.

DHEA’s effects on cardiovascular health involve multiple mechanisms, including improved endothelial function through increased nitric oxide production, reduced inflammation in vascular tissues, and favorable modulation of lipid profiles. These effects may be mediated both by DHEA itself and its metabolites. As an antioxidant, DHEA can scavenge reactive oxygen species and enhance the activity of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase and catalase. This antioxidant activity may contribute to DHEA’s potential anti-aging and neuroprotective effects.

DHEA may also influence epigenetic regulation through effects on DNA methylation and histone modification, potentially affecting gene expression patterns related to aging and disease processes. The 7-keto metabolite of DHEA (7-keto-DHEA) has distinct mechanisms of action, particularly for metabolic effects. Unlike DHEA, 7-keto-DHEA is not converted to sex hormones but can enhance thermogenesis and metabolic rate by activating enzymes involved in heat production and increasing thyroid hormone activity in peripheral tissues.

The optimal dosage of DHEA varies significantly based on age, sex, health status, and specific therapeutic goals. Clinical studies have used a wide range of dosages, typically between 25-200 mg daily. For general anti-aging and health maintenance purposes, lower doses (25-50 mg daily) are often recommended, particularly for individuals over 40 when natural DHEA levels begin to decline significantly. Higher doses (50-200 mg daily) may be used for specific therapeutic purposes under healthcare supervision.

Women generally require lower doses than men due to greater sensitivity to androgens and increased risk of androgenic side effects. Dosing should be guided by baseline and follow-up hormone testing whenever possible, with the goal of restoring DHEA levels to the optimal range for a healthy young adult (typically 25-35 years of age), rather than exceeding physiological norms.

DHEA demonstrates variable oral bioavailability, with estimates ranging from 10-50% depending on formulation and individual factors. After oral administration, DHEA undergoes significant first-pass metabolism in the liver, where a substantial portion is converted to DHEA-sulfate (DHEA-S) and other metabolites before reaching systemic circulation. This extensive first-pass effect contributes to its relatively low oral bioavailability compared to other administration routes. Sublingual administration bypasses first-pass metabolism to some extent, potentially increasing bioavailability to 30-70%, though precise comparative studies are limited.

Transdermal formulations (creams, gels, patches) may provide bioavailability of 30-80%, with the advantage of more stable blood levels and reduced hepatic processing. The absorption kinetics of oral DHEA show peak plasma concentrations typically occurring 60-90 minutes after ingestion, with conversion to DHEA-S continuing over several hours. DHEA-S serves as a circulating reservoir that can be converted back to DHEA in target tissues. Micronized DHEA formulations, with particle sizes reduced to 5-10 micrometers, demonstrate improved dissolution rates and absorption compared to non-micronized forms, potentially increasing bioavailability by 20-40%.

Micronization significantly improves dissolution rate and absorption by increasing surface area, Liposomal formulations can enhance bioavailability by protecting DHEA from degradation and improving cellular uptake, Sublingual administration bypasses first-pass metabolism, potentially increasing bioavailability, Taking with a small amount of healthy fat may improve absorption of oral formulations, Transdermal delivery systems (creams, gels, patches) bypass first-pass metabolism, Cyclodextrin complexation can improve solubility and stability, Sustained-release formulations may provide more consistent blood levels, Taking on an empty stomach may improve absorption for some individuals, Avoiding simultaneous intake of substances that induce liver enzymes, Proper timing relative to circadian rhythms (morning administration mimics natural peak)

For most individuals, morning administration of DHEA is recommended to align with the body’s natural circadian rhythm of DHEA production, which typically peaks in the early morning hours and declines throughout the day. This timing may help maintain more physiological hormone patterns. For those using DHEA primarily for energy and cognitive support, morning dosing is particularly appropriate, as it may enhance alertness and mental function during daytime hours. If using higher doses (above 50 mg), dividing into two daily doses (morning and early afternoon) may provide more stable blood levels and reduce potential side effects compared to a single large dose.

However, avoid evening dosing as it may interfere with sleep patterns in some individuals. For those using DHEA primarily for immune modulation or anti-inflammatory effects, consistent timing is more important than specific time of day, as these benefits accumulate through regular use rather than acute effects. When using DHEA for sexual function support, some individuals report better results taking it 1-2 hours before anticipated sexual activity, though the primary benefits still come from consistent daily use establishing stable hormone levels. For individuals with adrenal insufficiency using DHEA as adjunctive therapy, timing should be coordinated with other hormone replacement medications as directed by a healthcare provider.

If using multiple supplements or medications, separating DHEA from liver-metabolized medications by at least 2 hours may reduce potential interactions, particularly for medications with narrow therapeutic windows. For those using transdermal DHEA preparations, application in the morning is still preferred, though the time-release nature of these formulations makes timing somewhat less critical than with oral forms. For sublingual formulations, taking on an empty stomach may improve absorption, as food or beverages can wash away the hormone before complete absorption occurs. For those new to DHEA supplementation, starting with lower doses in the morning and gradually increasing while monitoring for effects and side effects is recommended.

This approach allows for assessment of individual response and tolerance.

• Androgenic effects in women (acne, facial hair growth, deepening voice, hair loss)
• Menstrual irregularities in women
• Mood changes (irritability, anxiety, mood swings)
• Headaches
• Insomnia or sleep disturbances
• Fatigue
• Gastrointestinal discomfort
• Increased blood pressure in some individuals
• Potential liver stress with long-term high doses
• Increased insulin resistance in some individuals
• Breast tenderness in women
• Testicular shrinkage in men (rare, with high doses)
• Increased PSA levels in men
• Oily skin and acne
• Potential aggravation of hormone-sensitive conditions

• Hormone-sensitive cancers (breast, prostate, ovarian, uterine)
• History of abnormal uterine bleeding
• Endometriosis
• Uterine fibroids
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
• Severe liver disease
• Severe kidney disease
• Pregnancy and breastfeeding
• Children and adolescents
• Active hormone-dependent malignancies
• Undiagnosed abnormal genital bleeding
• History of thromboembolic disorders
• Severe cardiovascular disease
• Uncontrolled hypertension
• Individuals with a history of steroid abuse

• Hormone replacement therapy (estrogen, testosterone) – potential additive effects
• Anticoagulants and antiplatelet drugs – potential increased bleeding risk
• Insulin and oral diabetes medications – may alter insulin sensitivity
• Antipsychotic medications – potential to alter effectiveness or side effects
• Triazolam and other benzodiazepines – altered metabolism and effectiveness
• Carbamazepine, phenobarbital, phenytoin – may increase DHEA metabolism
• Tamoxifen and other selective estrogen receptor modulators – potential interference
• Anastrozole and other aromatase inhibitors – potential interference
• Corticosteroids – complex interactions with adrenal function
• Metformin – potential interactions with insulin sensitivity effects
• Testosterone 5-alpha reductase inhibitors (finasteride, dutasteride) – complex hormonal interactions
• HIV protease inhibitors – potential altered metabolism of DHEA

No definitive toxic upper limit has been established for DHEA, but clinical experience and research suggest that doses above 200 mg daily significantly increase the risk of adverse effects without proportional benefits for most individuals. Most clinical studies have used doses between 25-200 mg daily, with side effects becoming more common and pronounced at higher doses, particularly above 100 mg daily. For women, the threshold for androgenic side effects is typically lower, with doses above 50 mg daily often associated with increased risk of acne, hirsutism, and other androgenic effects. The appropriate dose varies significantly based on age, sex, health status, and individual metabolism.

Hormone testing before and during supplementation is strongly recommended to guide dosing decisions and minimize risks. Long-term safety (beyond 1-2 years) of DHEA supplementation remains inadequately studied, particularly at higher doses. Some evidence suggests potential concerns with prolonged use of high doses, including possible effects on liver function, insulin sensitivity, and cardiovascular risk factors in certain individuals. The 7-keto metabolite of DHEA (7-keto-DHEA) may offer a safer alternative for some applications, as it is not converted to sex hormones and therefore lacks the androgenic and estrogenic side effects of DHEA.

However, it also lacks some of DHEA’s benefits related to hormone optimization. For individuals with hormone-sensitive conditions, even low doses of DHEA may pose significant risks and should be avoided unless specifically prescribed and monitored by a healthcare provider with expertise in hormone management. Regular monitoring is essential for anyone using DHEA long-term, including periodic assessment of hormone levels, liver function, lipid profiles, and condition-specific markers (such as PSA for men). Starting with lower doses (25 mg daily for men, 10-15 mg daily for women) and gradually increasing while monitoring for benefits and side effects represents the safest approach to DHEA supplementation.

In the United States, DHEA is regulated as a dietary supplement under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994. This classification allows it to be sold without prescription as long as manufacturers do not make specific disease treatment claims. The FDA does not review or approve dietary supplements before they are marketed, placing the responsibility on manufacturers to ensure safety and accurate labeling. Manufacturers are permitted to make structure/function claims (e.g., ‘supports hormone balance’ or ‘promotes healthy aging’) with appropriate disclaimers, but cannot claim to treat, cure, or prevent specific diseases.

The FDA has issued warning letters to some DHEA product manufacturers for making unsubstantiated disease claims. DHEA is not approved by the FDA as a drug for any specific medical condition, though it has been investigated for various applications including adrenal insufficiency and lupus. As a supplement, there are no official standardized dosing guidelines established by regulatory authorities.

Canada: In Canada, DHEA is classified as a Schedule IV controlled substance under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act. It requires a prescription and is not available as an over-the-counter supplement. Health Canada has approved certain DHEA products as prescription drugs for specific indications, particularly for symptoms associated with menopause and adrenal insufficiency.

Eu: In most European Union countries, DHEA is regulated as a prescription-only medicine and is not available as an over-the-counter supplement. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) has not granted centralized marketing authorization for DHEA products, leaving regulation primarily to individual member states. Some countries may have specific approved medical uses, while others may have no approved DHEA medications.

Uk: In the United Kingdom, DHEA is classified as a Class C controlled substance under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. It requires a prescription and is not available as an over-the-counter supplement. Limited prescription uses are approved, primarily for adrenal insufficiency and certain menopausal symptoms.

Australia: In Australia, DHEA is classified as a Schedule 4 (Prescription Only) substance by the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). It is not available as an over-the-counter supplement and requires a prescription from a licensed healthcare provider. Approved medical uses are limited.

Japan: In Japan, DHEA is regulated as a pharmaceutical ingredient requiring prescription. It is not approved as a dietary supplement or over-the-counter product. The Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare has approved limited medical applications.

China: In China, DHEA is regulated as a pharmaceutical ingredient requiring prescription. It is not widely available as either a medication or supplement. The National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) has not granted broad approvals for DHEA products.

Brazil: In Brazil, DHEA is regulated as a controlled substance requiring prescription. The Brazilian Health Regulatory Agency (ANVISA) classifies it as a hormone medication rather than a dietary supplement.

Russia: In Russia, DHEA is available by prescription only. It is regulated as a pharmaceutical product rather than a dietary supplement by the Russian Federal Service for Surveillance in Healthcare (Roszdravnadzor).

India: In India, DHEA is not widely regulated or marketed. When available, it is generally considered a pharmaceutical ingredient rather than a dietary supplement and would fall under the regulatory authority of the Central Drugs Standard Control Organization (CDSCO).

South Africa: In South Africa, DHEA is classified as a Schedule 6 substance under the Medicines and Related Substances Act, requiring a prescription and subject to significant controls. It is not available as an over-the-counter supplement.

Low to medium compared to most hormone-related supplements

Typical retail pricing for DHEA capsules ranges from $10-30 for a 30-day supply at common dosages (25-50 mg daily), translating to approximately $0.33-1.00 per day. Higher potency products (100 mg or more per capsule) may cost $20-40 for a 30-day supply. Micronized DHEA formulations typically command a 20-50% premium over standard formulations, with prices ranging from $15-45 for a 30-day supply. Sublingual and liposomal formulations generally cost $25-50 for a 30-day supply, reflecting their enhanced delivery systems.

Topical DHEA creams typically cost $20-60 per container, with cost per application varying based on concentration and container size. 7-keto DHEA, a metabolite that doesn’t convert to sex hormones, typically costs $25-50 for a 30-day supply, representing a premium of 50-100% over regular DHEA.

DHEA represents good value for specific applications, particularly considering its status as a hormone precursor with multiple potential benefits. The relatively low cost compared to direct hormone replacement therapies (which can cost $50-200+ monthly) makes it an economical option for those seeking hormonal support. The value proposition is strongest for individuals who: 1) Are over 40 and experiencing age-related DHEA decline; 2) Have documented low DHEA levels confirmed by testing; 3) Experience measurable benefits in energy, mood, or other parameters; 4) Are using it for specific evidence-supported applications like adrenal insufficiency. For general anti-aging purposes, the value of DHEA is more difficult to quantify due to mixed research results and individual variability in response.

Some users report significant benefits that justify the cost, while others experience minimal effects. The significant price variation between products reflects differences in quality, formulation, and marketing positioning rather than necessarily proportional differences in efficacy. Basic DHEA supplements from reputable manufacturers often provide similar quality at the lower end of the price spectrum. For maximum cost efficiency, consumers should compare products based on price per milligram of active ingredient rather than total price.

Pharmaceutical-grade DHEA is available from compounding pharmacies with a prescription, sometimes at competitive prices compared to over-the-counter supplements, while potentially offering greater quality assurance. Testing costs should be factored into the overall value equation when using DHEA. Baseline and follow-up hormone testing (typically $50-200 per panel) is strongly recommended for safe and effective use, adding to the total cost of therapy. For those requiring higher doses, purchasing higher-potency capsules (100 mg) and splitting them can significantly reduce costs compared to taking multiple lower-dose capsules.

However, this approach requires careful measurement and may not be suitable for everyone. The 7-keto metabolite, while more expensive, may offer better value for those specifically seeking metabolic benefits without hormonal effects, as it provides more targeted action with reduced risk of side effects. For individuals with adrenal insufficiency using DHEA as adjunctive therapy, the cost is generally justified by specific clinical benefits and may be covered by insurance in some cases when prescribed by a physician. For most users, the sweet spot for value appears to be basic DHEA capsules from reputable manufacturers, used at the lowest effective dose determined through careful self-monitoring and periodic testing.

Properly stored DHEA in capsule or tablet form typically has a shelf life of 2-3 years from date of manufacture. Pure DHEA powder may have a slightly shorter optimal shelf life of 1-2 years due to increased surface area exposure to environmental factors. Liquid formulations generally have shorter shelf lives of 1-2 years, with stability declining more rapidly after opening due to increased exposure to air and potential contamination. Transdermal preparations (creams, gels) typically have shelf lives of 1-2 years when properly stored, though efficacy may begin to decline earlier due to potential separation or degradation of the base formulation.

Sublingual tablets generally have shelf lives similar to regular tablets (2-3 years) but may be more susceptible to moisture degradation if not properly stored.

Store DHEA supplements in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight, preferably below 75°F (24°C). Refrigeration is not necessary for most formulations and may actually increase the risk of condensation when containers are opened and closed. However, some liquid formulations may benefit from refrigeration after opening – follow manufacturer’s specific recommendations. Airtight containers are essential to prevent moisture absorption, which can accelerate degradation.

Once opened, ensure the container is tightly sealed after each use. For powders, use a dry spoon to remove product to avoid introducing moisture. Some manufacturers include desiccant packets in their products to absorb moisture; these should be kept in the container but not consumed. If purchasing in bulk quantities, consider transferring a portion to a smaller container for regular use while keeping the remainder sealed until needed.

Avoid storing near strong-smelling substances as cross-contamination of odors may occur. For capsule and tablet forms, store in their original containers with the lid tightly closed, away from heat and moisture. For transdermal preparations, ensure the container is tightly sealed after use and follow any specific storage instructions provided by the manufacturer. Some products may require refrigeration.

Sublingual tablets are particularly sensitive to moisture; ensure they remain in their original container with any desiccant packets included, and avoid handling them with wet hands. Some premium DHEA products are packaged in dark glass or opaque containers to protect from light, though light exposure is generally less critical for DHEA stability than moisture and heat exposure.

Moisture: The primary degradation factor for DHEA; absorption of moisture can lead to hydrolysis and degradation of the steroid structure, Heat: Elevated temperatures accelerate chemical degradation; prolonged exposure to temperatures above 85°F (30°C) can significantly reduce potency, Oxygen: Exposure to air causes oxidation, particularly of the double bond in the steroid structure, forming various oxidation products, Light: Direct sunlight and UV exposure can cause photodegradation, though this is less significant than moisture and heat factors, Microbial contamination: Can lead to both safety issues and degradation of the active compound, pH extremes: DHEA is most stable at slightly acidic to neutral pH; strong acids or bases can accelerate degradation, Enzymatic degradation: Primarily a concern for liquid formulations without appropriate preservatives, Chemical interactions with excipients: Some fillers, binders, or other ingredients may potentially accelerate degradation if not properly formulated, Freeze-thaw cycles: Repeated freezing and thawing can affect physical stability, particularly of liquid and transdermal formulations, Physical stress: Excessive crushing or grinding of tablets can expose more surface area to degradation factors

Synthesis Methods

Natural Sources

Quality Considerations

DHEA has a relatively short historical usage compared to many traditional botanical supplements, as it was first identified and isolated in the 20th century. The compound was initially discovered in 1934 by Adolf Butenandt and Kurt Tscherning, who isolated it from human urine. This groundbreaking work was part of the early exploration of steroid hormones that would eventually earn Butenandt the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1939. Following its discovery, DHEA remained primarily a subject of scientific research rather than a therapeutic agent for several decades.

In the 1950s and 1960s, researchers began to elucidate its role in the steroid hormone cascade and its production by the adrenal glands. During this period, it was recognized as the most abundant circulating steroid hormone in humans, though its specific functions remained poorly understood. The first therapeutic applications of DHEA emerged in the 1960s, when it was briefly marketed as a weight loss aid under the brand name Astenile. However, these early commercial applications lacked substantial scientific foundation and were relatively short-lived.

The 1970s saw increased scientific interest in DHEA, particularly following the discovery that blood levels of DHEA and its sulfated form (DHEA-S) decline dramatically with age. This observation, first documented comprehensively by Étienne-Émile Baulieu and colleagues, led to speculation about DHEA’s potential role in the aging process and age-related conditions. The 1980s marked a turning point in DHEA research, with studies beginning to explore its potential benefits for various health conditions. Early clinical investigations examined its effects on obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular health, though with mixed results.

During this period, DHEA remained primarily available as a prescription medication in most countries. The 1994 Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) in the United States created a regulatory framework that allowed DHEA to be marketed as a dietary supplement rather than a drug. This legislative change dramatically increased its availability to the general public and sparked a surge in commercial interest and consumer use. The late 1990s and early 2000s saw an explosion of research into DHEA’s potential benefits, with studies examining its effects on aging, immune function, cognitive health, bone density, sexual function, and various disease states.

This period also saw the emergence of DHEA as a popular anti-aging supplement, often promoted as a ‘fountain of youth’ despite limited clinical evidence for such broad claims. In the early 2000s, sports organizations began to recognize DHEA’s potential as a performance-enhancing substance due to its conversion to testosterone. This led to its inclusion on prohibited substance lists by organizations including the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The 2000s and 2010s brought more nuanced understanding of DHEA’s effects, with research focusing on specific applications rather than its potential as a panacea.

Particular attention has been given to its use in adrenal insufficiency, autoimmune conditions, depression, and sexual dysfunction, with more rigorous clinical trials providing clearer evidence of benefits and limitations. In recent years, research has expanded to include investigations of DHEA’s neurosteroid effects, its role in stress resilience, and its potential applications in precision medicine approaches that consider individual variations in metabolism and response. The development of alternative forms, including 7-keto DHEA (a metabolite that doesn’t convert to sex hormones), has also expanded the landscape of clinical applications. Throughout its history, DHEA has occupied a unique position between conventional medicine and alternative health approaches.

While some medical applications (such as its use in adrenal insufficiency) have gained acceptance in conventional practice, many of its uses remain in the realm of complementary and alternative medicine, with ongoing debates about appropriate applications, dosing, and monitoring. Today, DHEA continues to be widely available as a dietary supplement in the United States and some other countries, while remaining a prescription medication or controlled substance in many parts of the world. This regulatory divergence reflects the ongoing scientific uncertainty about its risk-benefit profile and optimal clinical applications.

Panjari M, Davis SR. DHEA for postmenopausal women: a review of the evidence. Maturitas. 2010;66(2):172-179. doi:10.1016/j.maturitas.2009.12.017, Rutkowski K, Sowa P, Rutkowska-Talipska J, Kuryliszyn-Moskal A, Rutkowski R. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA): hypes and hopes. Drugs. 2014;74(11):1195-1207. doi:10.1007/s40265-014-0259-8, Elraiyah T, Sonbol MB, Wang Z, et al. Clinical review: The benefits and harms of systemic dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) in postmenopausal women with normal adrenal function: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014;99(10):3536-3542. doi:10.1210/jc.2014-2261

DHEA Supplementation for Cognitive Function in Aging (DHEA-COGNITION-2023), Effects of DHEA on Bone Mineral Density in Postmenopausal Women (DHEA-BONE-2022), DHEA for Depression in Elderly: A Randomized Controlled Trial (DHEA-MOOD-2023), Comparative Analysis of Different Hormone Precursors on Metabolic Health (HORMONE-METAB-2022)