Allyl Isothiocyanate

• Antimicrobial activity
• Anti-inflammatory effects
• Antioxidant properties
• Potential anticancer activity

• Digestive health support
• Respiratory health
• Detoxification support
• Cardiovascular protection
• Neuroprotective effects

Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is a bioactive organosulfur compound found in cruciferous vegetables, particularly concentrated in mustard, horseradish, and wasabi. It is formed when the glucosinolate sinigrin is hydrolyzed by the enzyme myrosinase, which occurs when plant tissues are damaged through cutting, chewing, or processing. AITC exerts its biological effects through multiple mechanisms. As an electrophilic compound, AITC readily reacts with nucleophilic groups, particularly sulfhydryl (-SH) groups in proteins, forming stable dithiocarbamate adducts.

This reactivity is central to many of its biological activities. One of the primary mechanisms of AITC is the activation of the Nrf2-Keap1-ARE pathway. Under normal conditions, the transcription factor Nrf2 is bound to Keap1 in the cytoplasm, which targets it for degradation. AITC modifies specific cysteine residues in Keap1, causing a conformational change that prevents Keap1 from targeting Nrf2 for degradation.

This allows Nrf2 to translocate to the nucleus, where it binds to Antioxidant Response Elements (ARE) in the promoter regions of cytoprotective genes, upregulating their expression. These genes include phase II detoxification enzymes, antioxidant proteins, and other stress-response proteins that protect cells from oxidative damage and xenobiotics. AITC also exhibits potent antimicrobial properties through multiple mechanisms. It disrupts bacterial cell membranes, interferes with essential enzymes by reacting with their thiol groups, and may inhibit bacterial respiration.

These effects make AITC effective against a wide range of bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms. The anti-inflammatory effects of AITC involve inhibition of the NF-κB pathway, a key regulator of inflammatory responses. AITC blocks the degradation of IκB, preventing the translocation of NF-κB to the nucleus and subsequent expression of pro-inflammatory genes. Additionally, AITC can inhibit the production of inflammatory mediators such as nitric oxide, prostaglandins, and pro-inflammatory cytokines.

AITC’s potential anticancer activities involve multiple mechanisms, including induction of cell cycle arrest, promotion of apoptosis in cancer cells, inhibition of angiogenesis, and suppression of metastasis. AITC can activate mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and induce the intrinsic apoptotic pathway through mitochondrial dysfunction and caspase activation. It may also inhibit histone deacetylases (HDACs), leading to epigenetic changes that can suppress tumor growth. In the cardiovascular system, AITC can activate TRPA1 channels in vascular tissues, leading to vasodilation and potentially beneficial effects on blood pressure.

It may also improve endothelial function and reduce platelet aggregation. AITC’s pungency and irritant properties are mediated through activation of TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1) ion channels, which are expressed in sensory neurons and play a role in pain and inflammatory responses. This activation contributes to the characteristic sharp, pungent sensation experienced when consuming mustard or wasabi. The diverse mechanisms of action of AITC explain its wide range of biological activities and potential health benefits, from antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory effects to potential cancer prevention and cardiovascular protection.

The optimal dosage of allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is not well-established in human clinical studies. Most research has focused on dietary intake through food sources rather than supplementation. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 0.02 mg/kg body weight per day, which translates to approximately 1.4 mg per day for a 70 kg adult. However, typical dietary intake from food sources is generally lower than this limit.

Mustard: 1 teaspoon (approximately 5g) of prepared mustard contains approximately 0.3-0.5 mg of AITC

Wasabi: 1 teaspoon (approximately 5g) of wasabi paste contains approximately 0.5-0.7 mg of AITC

Horseradish: 1 teaspoon (approximately 5g) of prepared horseradish contains approximately 0.4-0.6 mg of AITC

When consumed as a supplement, AITC is generally recommended to be taken with meals to reduce potential gastrointestinal irritation. For antimicrobial or respiratory benefits, some traditional practices suggest consumption at the onset of symptoms. Due to its potential irritant properties, it is advisable to start with lower doses and gradually increase as tolerated.

It is important to note that most research on AITC has been conducted in vitro or in animal models, with limited human clinical trials. The optimal therapeutic dosage for specific health conditions has not been well-established through rigorous clinical studies. Additionally, the high reactivity of AITC means that its bioavailability and effects can vary significantly depending on the food matrix, preparation methods, and individual factors.

Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is rapidly absorbed in the gastrointestinal tract following oral consumption. Studies in rats have shown that approximately 90% of orally administered AITC is absorbed within 3 hours. The lipophilic nature of AITC facilitates its passage across cell membranes, contributing to its high absorption rate.

However , due to its high reactivity with proteins and other biomolecules, a significant portion of AITC may react with food components before reaching systemic circulation.

Consumption with dietary fats can enhance absorption due to AITC’s lipophilic nature, Microencapsulation technologies can protect AITC from premature degradation and control its release, Emulsion-based delivery systems can improve stability and bioavailability, Consumption of fresh preparations of mustard, wasabi, or horseradish ensures maximum AITC content, as it can degrade over time, Proper food preparation techniques that activate myrosinase enzyme (crushing, chopping, or chewing cruciferous vegetables) maximize conversion of sinigrin to AITC

AITC is best consumed with meals containing some fat content to enhance absorption. For maximum benefits from food sources, cruciferous vegetables should be consumed fresh and properly prepared to ensure myrosinase activity and AITC formation. When using prepared condiments like mustard or wasabi, fresher preparations generally contain higher levels of active AITC.

After absorption, AITC undergoes extensive metabolism, primarily through the mercapturic acid pathway.

It initially conjugates with glutathione (GSH) either spontaneously or catalyzed by glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) to form AITC-GSH conjugates.

These conjugates are further metabolized through a series of enzymatic reactions involving γ-glutamyltranspeptidase, cysteinylglycinase, and N-acetyltransferase, ultimately forming N-acetylcysteine (NAC) conjugates, which are the major urinary metabolites. The primary metabolite, N-acetyl-S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine, is excreted in urine and serves as a biomarker of AITC exposure.

AITC has a relatively short half-life in the body, estimated to be approximately 1-2 hours in humans. This short half-life is due to its rapid metabolism and excretion. The majority of AITC metabolites are eliminated within 24 hours of consumption.

The primary biomarkers for AITC exposure and metabolism are urinary mercapturic acid pathway metabolites, particularly N-acetyl-S-(N-allylthiocarbamoyl)-L-cysteine. These metabolites can be measured using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) techniques and serve as indicators of AITC absorption and metabolism. Additionally, plasma levels of AITC can be directly measured, though this is less common due to its rapid metabolism.

• Gastrointestinal irritation (common at higher doses)
• Mucosal irritation (mouth, throat, stomach)
• Skin irritation (with topical application)
• Lacrimation (tearing) and rhinorrhea (runny nose) due to irritant properties
• Temporary burning sensation in mouth and throat
• Nausea (at higher doses)
• Potential allergic reactions in sensitive individuals

• Gastrointestinal ulcers or inflammatory conditions
• Known allergy to mustard, wasabi, horseradish, or other cruciferous vegetables
• Severe kidney or liver disease (due to involvement in metabolism)
• Pregnancy and breastfeeding (as a supplement, though dietary amounts in food are generally considered safe)
• Scheduled surgery (discontinue 2 weeks before due to potential effects on platelet function)
• Children (as a supplement, though dietary amounts in food are generally considered safe)

• Anticoagulant and antiplatelet medications (theoretical concern due to potential effects on platelet function)
• Medications metabolized by glutathione S-transferases (potential competition for metabolic pathways)
• Medications that deplete glutathione (may affect AITC metabolism)
• Drugs with narrow therapeutic windows (caution advised due to potential metabolic interactions)
• Medications for gastrointestinal conditions (may exacerbate irritation)

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 0.02 mg/kg body weight per day, which translates to approximately 1.4 mg per day for a 70 kg adult. Higher doses may increase the risk of irritation and adverse effects. The acute reference dose (ARfD) has been established at 0.05 mg/kg body weight, indicating the amount that can be consumed in a single day without appreciable health risk.

Long-term safety studies in humans are limited. Animal studies suggest potential concerns with chronic high-dose exposure, including possible genotoxicity and carcinogenicity at very high doses. However, epidemiological evidence suggests that regular consumption of cruciferous vegetables containing natural amounts of AITC is associated with health benefits rather than risks. The context of consumption (natural food matrix vs. isolated compound) appears to significantly influence long-term safety profile.

Pregnant Women: Not recommended as a supplement due to insufficient safety data. Dietary consumption of AITC-containing foods in normal amounts is generally considered safe.

Breastfeeding Women: Not recommended as a supplement due to insufficient safety data. Dietary consumption of AITC-containing foods in normal amounts is generally considered safe.

Children: Not recommended as a supplement. Dietary exposure through foods in age-appropriate amounts is considered safe.

Elderly: May be more sensitive to irritant effects; lower doses recommended if used.

Liver Disease: Use with caution due to involvement of liver enzymes in metabolism.

Kidney Disease: Use with caution as metabolites are primarily excreted through the kidneys.

Allergic reactions to AITC are possible, particularly in individuals with known allergies to mustard, wasabi, horseradish, or other cruciferous vegetables. Symptoms may include skin rash, itching, swelling, severe dizziness, and difficulty breathing. Mustard allergy is recognized as one of the major food allergens in some countries, including the European Union, where it must be declared on food labels.

Acute Toxicity: AITC has moderate acute toxicity. The oral LD50 in rats is approximately 339 mg/kg body weight, indicating that very high doses can be harmful. However, typical dietary exposure is orders of magnitude lower than these toxic levels.

Subchronic Toxicity: In 90-day feeding studies in rats, a No Observed Adverse Effect Level (NOAEL) of 12 mg/kg body weight/day has been established. Effects at higher doses included reduced body weight gain and changes in liver and kidney parameters.

Genotoxicity: Results from genotoxicity studies are mixed. Some in vitro studies suggest potential genotoxicity, while others show no significant effects. The genotoxic potential appears to be mitigated in vivo by detoxification mechanisms.

Carcinogenicity: High-dose animal studies have shown some evidence of carcinogenic potential, particularly in the urinary bladder of rats exposed to very high doses. However, epidemiological evidence in humans suggests that dietary consumption of cruciferous vegetables containing AITC is associated with reduced cancer risk, highlighting the importance of dose and context of exposure.

Developmental Toxicity: Studies in animals suggest potential developmental toxicity at high doses. A study in Xenopus laevis embryos showed that AITC can cause developmental abnormalities at concentrations much higher than typical dietary exposure.

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has evaluated AITC for use as a food additive and established safety parameters including the ADI of 0.02 mg/kg body weight/day. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) lists AITC as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) for use as a flavoring agent in foods at low concentrations. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) has also evaluated AITC and established similar safety guidelines.

In the United States, allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) is classified as Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) by the FDA for use as a food flavoring agent (21 CFR 172.515) at levels not exceeding good manufacturing practices. As a food additive, it is permitted for specific uses with established limitations. For dietary supplement use, AITC falls under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994, which regulates it as a dietary ingredient. However, the FDA has not specifically evaluated or approved AITC as a standalone dietary supplement ingredient.

Pure AITC is also regulated as a food additive for use in packaging materials with antimicrobial properties. The FDA prohibits therapeutic or disease-prevention claims for AITC-containing supplements without approved drug status.

Eu: In the European Union, AITC is regulated under the Food Additives Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 as a flavoring substance (FL No. 07.004). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has established an Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) of 0.02 mg/kg body weight per day. AITC is also subject to the EU’s Novel Food Regulation if used in ways that do not have a history of significant consumption before May 1997. For non-food uses, AITC is regulated under REACH (Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals) regulations.

Canada: Health Canada regulates AITC as both a food additive and a potential Natural Health Product (NHP) ingredient. As a food additive, it is permitted in certain standardized mustard preparations. For use in NHPs, manufacturers must obtain product licenses with specific safety and efficacy data. Health Canada has established similar safety limits to those of EFSA.

Japan: In Japan, AITC is regulated by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare as a food additive and flavoring agent. It is also recognized as a component of traditional foods like wasabi. Japan has specific regulations for wasabi products, including standards for AITC content in authentic wasabi versus imitation products.

Australia: The Food Standards Australia New Zealand (FSANZ) regulates AITC as a food flavoring agent. For therapeutic use, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) would regulate AITC-containing products, though there are currently few approved therapeutic applications.

China: The National Medical Products Administration (NMPA) and the State Administration for Market Regulation regulate AITC in China, primarily as a food additive and flavoring agent.

Various patents exist related to AITC applications, including methods of stabilization, controlled release formulations, antimicrobial applications, and specific therapeutic uses. Notable patents include those for microencapsulation technologies to improve AITC stability, controlled-release packaging systems utilizing AITC’s antimicrobial properties, and methods for enhancing AITC’s bioavailability for therapeutic applications. Most basic patents on AITC itself have expired, as the compound has been known for over a century, but novel formulations and applications continue to be patented.

Us: When used as a food additive, AITC must be declared on ingredient labels. In dietary supplements, it must be listed in the Supplement Facts panel with its common or usual name. Products containing mustard must declare it as an allergen under the Food Allergen Labeling and Consumer Protection Act (FALCPA). Any structure/function claims must be accompanied by the FDA disclaimer: ‘These statements have not been evaluated by the Food and Drug Administration. This product is not intended to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.’

Eu: AITC must be declared in the ingredients list when used as a food additive. Products containing mustard must prominently declare it as an allergen, as mustard is one of the 14 major allergens requiring mandatory labeling in the EU. Health claims are strictly regulated and must be pre-approved by EFSA.

Canada: Similar to the US and EU, AITC must be declared on ingredient labels, and mustard must be highlighted as an allergen. NHPs containing AITC must comply with specific labeling requirements, including approved health claims, cautions, and contraindications.

Structure Function: In the US, limited structure/function claims may be made for AITC-containing supplements, such as ‘supports digestive health’ or ‘helps maintain respiratory function,’ provided they are truthful, not misleading, and accompanied by the appropriate FDA disclaimer. However, specific structure/function claims for AITC have not been widely established or evaluated.

Health Claims: No specific health claims for AITC have been approved by major regulatory agencies. In the EU, no health claims related to AITC have been authorized by EFSA. Any claims must be supported by scientific evidence and comply with regional regulations.

The primary regulatory challenges for AITC relate to its dual nature as both a potentially beneficial bioactive compound and a potential irritant/toxicant at higher doses. Establishing appropriate safety limits while allowing effective doses presents a regulatory balancing act. The volatile nature of AITC creates challenges for standardization and quality control in supplements and food products. Additionally, the allergenic potential of mustard (a primary source of AITC) necessitates careful allergen labeling and management.

For therapeutic applications, the limited human clinical trial data presents challenges for obtaining regulatory approvals for specific health claims or medical uses. The natural presence of AITC in traditional foods creates complexity in regulating it as an isolated compound versus its presence in whole foods.

Medium to High

Approximately $0.30-$2.00 per day for supplement forms, depending on formulation and brand. Natural food sources (mustard, horseradish, wasabi) provide more cost-effective options, with effective doses costing approximately $0.10-$0.50 per serving.

AITC offers moderate value considering its multiple potential health benefits and relatively limited human clinical evidence. The cost-effectiveness varies significantly depending on the source and form. Natural food sources like mustard seeds, horseradish, and prepared mustard condiments provide the highest value, delivering AITC along with other beneficial compounds at a relatively low cost. Commercial supplements vary widely in price and quality, with higher-priced products often containing standardized extracts or enhanced delivery systems that may improve stability and bioavailability.

These premium features may justify the higher cost for specific applications, but for general health benefits, food sources typically offer better value. When considering the potential antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant benefits, even higher-cost supplements may represent reasonable value for specific health concerns where concentrated doses might be beneficial. However, the limited human clinical evidence for many proposed benefits means that the actual value proposition remains somewhat speculative for therapeutic applications.

Use culinary sources of AITC (mustard, horseradish, wasabi) as part of regular diet instead of supplements, Grow mustard greens or horseradish at home for fresh, cost-effective sources, Make homemade mustard from whole seeds for maximum AITC content at minimal cost, Purchase supplements during sales or with subscription discounts, Compare cost per mg of active AITC rather than cost per capsule (some products contain higher concentrations), Consider the presence of stabilizers or enhanced delivery systems when evaluating cost (products with these features may provide better value despite higher price)

Direct Costs: The direct cost of AITC supplementation varies widely depending on the source and form, from very economical (culinary sources) to relatively expensive (premium supplements).

Indirect Savings: Potential cost savings from preventive health benefits are difficult to quantify due to limited clinical evidence. If the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties translate to reduced incidence of certain conditions, there could be healthcare cost savings, but this remains speculative without more definitive human studies.

The market for AITC and AITC-containing products has been growing steadily, driven by increasing consumer interest in natural bioactive compounds and functional foods.

Several trends are notable: 1) Premium wasabi and mustard products with verified AITC content are gaining market share, appealing to health-conscious consumers; 2) Specialized supplements targeting specific health concerns (respiratory health, antimicrobial support) are emerging; 3) Food preservation applications utilizing AITC’s natural antimicrobial properties are expanding; 4) Research into novel delivery systems to improve AITC stability and bioavailability is advancing, potentially leading to more effective but higher-priced products in the future; 5) Growing awareness of mustard as an a

llergen is influencing product development and marketing strategies. The market is expected to continue growing as research expands into new potential benefits and as consumer awareness of natural bioactive compounds increases.

Pure AITC has a relatively short shelf life due to its volatile and reactive nature. Under optimal storage conditions (refrigerated, in airtight, light-resistant containers), pure AITC typically maintains acceptable stability for 6-12 months. In commercial preparations, stabilizers and appropriate packaging can extend this to 1-2 years. In prepared foods like mustard and wasabi paste, the shelf life varies significantly depending on formulation, preservatives, and packaging, ranging from several months to over a year when unopened.

Once opened, these products typically maintain AITC activity for 1-3 months when refrigerated.

Store in tightly sealed, opaque containers to prevent volatilization and light-induced degradation. Refrigeration (2-8°C) is strongly recommended for pure AITC and AITC-containing supplements. For commercial food products containing AITC (mustard, wasabi, horseradish preparations), follow manufacturer’s recommendations, but refrigeration after opening generally extends active compound stability. Avoid exposure to heat, direct sunlight, and air, all of which accelerate degradation.

For long-term storage of pure AITC, some researchers recommend storage under inert gas (nitrogen) to prevent oxidation.

Heat – temperatures above 40°C (104°F) significantly accelerate degradation, Exposure to air (oxygen) – causes oxidation and loss of activity, Light exposure – particularly UV light catalyzes degradation reactions, Moisture – can promote hydrolysis and degradation, Alkaline conditions – AITC is more stable in slightly acidic to neutral pH, Presence of nucleophilic compounds (particularly those with free thiol groups) – react readily with AITC, Metal ions – certain metal ions can catalyze degradation reactions

Pure Compound: Highly unstable; requires careful storage conditions

Oil Solutions: Moderate stability; protected somewhat from hydrolysis but still susceptible to oxidation

Microencapsulated: Significantly improved stability; protective matrix shields from environmental factors

In Food Matrix: Variable stability depending on other ingredients; acidic conditions (as in vinegar-based mustard) generally improve stability

Dried Powder: Poor stability unless specially formulated with stabilizers and appropriate packaging

Diminished pungency and characteristic aroma, Color changes (yellowing or darkening), Formation of precipitates in liquid preparations, Reduced biological activity (antimicrobial, enzyme-inducing effects), Development of off-odors or rancid smell

AITC is best packaged in materials that provide barriers against moisture, oxygen, and light. Amber glass containers are excellent for laboratory or supplement use. For commercial food products, laminated packaging with aluminum layers provides good protection. Plastic packaging should include oxygen and moisture barriers.

Single-use packaging or small containers are preferable to minimize repeated opening and exposure to air. For supplements, blister packs with aluminum backing can provide good stability. Some commercial preparations use nitrogen flushing during packaging to displace oxygen and extend shelf life.

Gas chromatography (GC) or high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to measure AITC content over time, Sensory evaluation of pungency and aroma (though subjective), Antimicrobial activity assays as functional tests of potency, Nrf2 activation assays to measure biological activity, Accelerated stability testing under various temperature and humidity conditions, Headspace analysis to measure volatile compound release

Several approaches can enhance AITC stability in various formulations. Microencapsulation using cyclodextrins, liposomes, or other carrier systems can significantly improve stability by protecting AITC from environmental factors. Inclusion of antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E, rosemary extract) can help prevent oxidative degradation. Maintaining slightly acidic conditions (pH 4-6) generally improves stability compared to neutral or alkaline conditions.

For food applications, emulsion-based systems can provide protection while maintaining bioavailability. Some formulations use controlled release systems that generate AITC in situ from more stable precursors when needed, similar to the natural sinigrin-myrosinase system in plants.

Synthesis Methods

Natural Sources

Quality Considerations

Geographical Sources

Processing Methods

Sustainability Considerations

Home Preparation

Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) has a rich history of use across various cultures, primarily through its natural sources such as mustard, horseradish, and wasabi. The use of mustard seeds, the primary source of AITC, dates back to ancient civilizations. Archaeological evidence suggests that mustard was cultivated as early as 3000 BCE in India, where it was valued both as a food and medicinal plant. Ancient Sanskrit texts mention mustard for its pungent properties and medicinal applications.

In ancient Egypt, mustard seeds were found in pharaohs’ tombs, indicating their cultural significance. The Greek physician Hippocrates (460-370 BCE) documented the use of mustard preparations for various ailments, including respiratory conditions, aches, and pains. He recommended mustard poultices (plasters) applied externally to relieve chest congestion and muscle pain, applications that leverage AITC’s counter-irritant and circulation-stimulating properties. The Romans further developed mustard’s culinary and medicinal applications.

Pliny the Elder’s ‘Natural History’ (77 CE) described numerous medicinal uses for mustard, including treatments for scorpion stings, toothaches, and seizures. The Romans were among the first to prepare mustard as a condiment by mixing ground seeds with unfermented grape juice (must), giving rise to the name ‘mustard’ (from Latin ‘mustum ardens’ meaning ‘burning must’). During the Middle Ages, mustard gained prominence in European monastic medicine. The 12th-century German abbess and herbalist Hildegard of Bingen recommended mustard for digestive issues and to ‘purify the senses.’ Monastery gardens commonly grew mustard, and monks developed various medicinal preparations.

By the 13th century, mustard had become an important trade commodity in Europe, with the town of Dijon, France, emerging as a center of mustard production by the 14th century. In traditional Chinese medicine, mustard seeds (Bai Jie Zi) have been used for centuries to treat lung congestion, coughs, and abdominal pain. Chinese medical texts describe mustard’s warming properties and its ability to disperse stagnation and clear phlegm. In Japanese culture, wasabi (Wasabia japonica) has been used since at least the 10th century.

Initially valued for its antimicrobial properties that helped prevent food poisoning from raw fish, wasabi became an essential component of traditional Japanese cuisine. The specific compound AITC was first isolated and identified in the 19th century as scientific understanding of plant chemistry advanced. In 1855, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann first described the chemical structure of AITC, though it had been extracted from mustard oil earlier. The development of mustard gas (sulfur mustard) as a chemical weapon during World War I was based on the chemical understanding of mustard compounds, though sulfur mustard is chemically distinct from AITC.

Throughout the 20th century, scientific research began to elucidate the mechanisms behind the traditional uses of AITC-containing plants. Studies confirmed antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and other biological activities, providing scientific validation for many historical applications. In modern times, AITC has found applications beyond traditional medicine and cuisine. It has been investigated as a natural food preservative, agricultural biopesticide, and potential therapeutic agent for various health conditions.

The long history of human consumption of AITC-containing foods provides valuable information about its safety profile and potential benefits, informing current research and applications.

Zhang Y. Allyl isothiocyanate as a cancer chemopreventive phytochemical. Mol Nutr Food Res. 2010;54(1):127-135. doi:10.1002/mnfr.200900323, Wu X, Zhou QH, Xu K. Are isothiocyanates potential anti-cancer drugs? Acta Pharmacol Sin. 2009;30(5):501-512. doi:10.1038/aps.2009.50

Investigation of AITC-rich foods in cancer prevention, Evaluation of AITC as an adjunct to conventional cancer therapies, Studies on AITC’s effects on metabolic health and insulin sensitivity, Research on AITC’s antimicrobial properties for food preservation applications

Limited human clinical trials with AITC supplementation, Insufficient data on long-term safety and efficacy in humans, Limited understanding of optimal dosing for specific health conditions, Need for better characterization of bioavailability and metabolism in diverse populations, Limited research on potential interactions with medications and other supplements, Insufficient data on effects in special populations (elderly, pediatric, pregnant women)

Antimicrobial Activity: Strong – multiple in vitro and food science studies

Anticancer Effects: Moderate – primarily in vitro and animal studies with limited human data

Anti Inflammatory Effects: Moderate – animal studies with some mechanistic understanding

Metabolic Health: Preliminary – promising animal studies but limited human data

Cardiovascular Protection: Preliminary – limited but positive animal studies

Neuroprotection: Preliminary – very limited studies

While many studies suggest potential health benefits of AITC, particularly in cancer prevention, some toxicological studies indicate potential concerns at high doses, including possible genotoxicity and developmental toxicity.

These contradictory findings may be explained by hormetic effects (beneficial at low doses but harmful at high doses), differences between isolated AITC and its presence in whole foods, and variations in study methodologies.

Additionally ,

while epidemiological studies generally show benefits of consuming cruciferous vegetables rich in AITC precursors,

these benefits may be due to multiple bioactive compounds working synergistically rather than AITC alone.