BioPerine is a patented black pepper extract standardized to 95% piperine that significantly enhances the bioavailability of many nutrients by up to 30-2000% through inhibiting metabolic enzymes and promoting nutrient absorption.
Alternative Names: Piperine, Black Pepper Extract, 1-piperoylpiperidine, 1-(1-[1,3-benzodioxol-5-yl]-1-oxo-2,4-pentenyl) piperidine
Categories: Bioavailability Enhancer, Alkaloid, Phytochemical
Primary Longevity Benefits
- Enhanced nutrient absorption
- Improved bioavailability of supplements
- Thermogenic properties
Secondary Benefits
- Digestive support
- Anti-inflammatory effects
- Antioxidant properties
- Cognitive function support
- Metabolic health
Mechanism of Action
BioPerine (piperine) enhances bioavailability of nutrients and supplements through multiple mechanisms. Its primary action is inhibiting drug-metabolizing enzymes in the liver, particularly cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP3A4, CYP1A1, CYP1B1, CYP1B2, CYP2E1) and UDP-glucuronyl transferase, which normally metabolize and eliminate compounds from the body. By inhibiting these enzymes, BioPerine extends the time nutrients remain active in the system. Additionally, BioPerine stimulates amino acid transporters in the intestinal lining, enhancing active nutrient transport across the intestinal membrane.
It also increases blood supply to the gastrointestinal tract through vasodilatory effects, promoting faster absorption of nutrients. BioPerine’s thermogenic properties stimulate thermogenesis by releasing catecholamines, creating metabolic energy (thermogenesis) that accelerates the digestive process and increases the efficiency of nutrient absorption. Beyond bioavailability enhancement, BioPerine exhibits anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting pro-inflammatory cytokines and signaling pathways like NF-κB. It demonstrates antioxidant properties by scavenging free radicals and enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase.
BioPerine may also influence cognitive function by modulating neurotransmitter levels and potentially inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter important for memory and learning. In metabolic health, BioPerine may improve insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism, potentially by activating AMPK (AMP-activated protein kinase), a key regulator of cellular energy homeostasis. These diverse mechanisms contribute to BioPerine’s wide range of health benefits beyond its primary role as a bioavailability enhancer.
Optimal Dosage
Disclaimer: The following dosage information is for educational purposes only. Always consult with a healthcare provider before starting any supplement regimen, especially if you have pre-existing health conditions, are pregnant or nursing, or are taking medications.
The standard effective dose of BioPerine for enhancing bioavailability is 5-10 mg per day. Most clinical studies have used 5 mg of BioPerine taken with supplements or nutrients to significantly enhance their absorption.
By Condition
| Condition | Dosage | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| General bioavailability enhancement | 5-10 mg per day | Typically taken simultaneously with other supplements or nutrients whose absorption you want to enhance |
| Curcumin absorption enhancement | 5-10 mg per day | Studies show 5 mg of BioPerine can increase curcumin bioavailability by up to 2000% |
| Coenzyme Q10 absorption enhancement | 5 mg per day | Clinical studies showed approximately 30% greater bioavailability of CoQ10 when taken with BioPerine |
| Resveratrol absorption enhancement | 5-10 mg per day | Can significantly increase blood levels of resveratrol |
| Vitamin B6 absorption enhancement | 5 mg per day | Shown to increase bioavailability by approximately 2.5 times |
| Selenium absorption enhancement | 5 mg per day | Can increase selenium absorption by approximately 30% |
| Beta-carotene absorption enhancement | 5 mg per day | Can increase beta-carotene absorption by approximately 60% |
| Thermogenic support | 5-10 mg per day | May support metabolic rate and thermogenesis |
By Age Group
| Age Group | Dosage | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Adults (18-65) | 5-10 mg per day | Standard dosage for most applications |
| Seniors (65+) | 5 mg per day | Lower dose may be appropriate due to potentially slower metabolism of compounds |
| Children and adolescents | Not recommended | Safety and efficacy not established in these age groups |
Bioavailability
Absorption Rate
BioPerine itself has an absorption rate of approximately 97% when taken orally. It is rapidly absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract, with peak plasma concentrations occurring within 1-2 hours after ingestion.
Enhancement Methods
Taking with a small amount of fat can potentially enhance absorption, Consuming with warm food or beverages may enhance thermogenic effects, Standardized extract (minimum 95% piperine) ensures consistent potency and bioavailability
Timing Recommendations
BioPerine should be taken simultaneously with the supplements or nutrients whose bioavailability you want to enhance. For maximum effectiveness, it should be taken with meals or within 30 minutes of eating. When used to enhance the absorption of fat-soluble nutrients (vitamins A, D, E, K, curcumin, etc.), taking it with a meal containing some fat is recommended.
Enhancement Factors
| Compound | Enhancement Percentage | Evidence Level |
|---|---|---|
| Curcumin | Up to 2000% | High – multiple clinical studies |
| Coenzyme Q10 | 30% | High – clinical studies |
| Vitamin B6 | 250% | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
| Beta-carotene | 60% | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
| Selenium | 30% | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
| Resveratrol | Significant increase (exact percentage varies) | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
| Vitamin C | 50-80% | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
| Iron | 40-200% (varies by study) | Moderate – limited clinical studies |
Mechanism Summary
BioPerine enhances bioavailability primarily through inhibition of drug-metabolizing enzymes, stimulation of amino acid transporters, increased gastrointestinal blood flow, and thermogenic effects that accelerate nutrient absorption.
Safety Profile
Safety Rating
Side Effects
- Gastrointestinal discomfort (rare)
- Heartburn (rare)
- Nausea (rare)
- Increased heart rate (rare, at high doses)
- Headache (rare)
Contraindications
- Pregnancy and breastfeeding (due to insufficient safety data)
- Scheduled surgery (discontinue 2 weeks before due to potential effects on drug metabolism)
- Bleeding disorders (theoretical concern due to potential antiplatelet effects)
- Diabetes (may affect blood glucose levels)
- Hormone-sensitive conditions (theoretical concern due to potential estrogenic effects)
Drug Interactions
- Medications metabolized by CYP3A4 enzymes (may increase blood levels and effects)
- Blood thinners (warfarin, aspirin, etc.) – may enhance anticoagulant effects
- Diabetes medications (may enhance hypoglycemic effects)
- Phenytoin, propranolol, and theophylline (may increase blood levels)
- MAO inhibitors (theoretical interaction)
- Immunosuppressants (may affect metabolism)
- Psychiatric medications (may affect metabolism)
- Sedatives (may affect metabolism)
Upper Limit
No established upper limit, but most studies use doses of 5-15 mg per day. Doses up to 20 mg per day have been used in research without significant adverse effects in most individuals. However, staying within the 5-10 mg range is recommended for general use.
Long Term Safety
Long-term safety studies are limited, but traditional use of black pepper (containing piperine) in the diet suggests safety with prolonged use at typical supplemental doses. As with any supplement, periodic breaks from use may be prudent.
Special Populations
Pregnant Women: Not recommended due to insufficient safety data
Breastfeeding Women: Not recommended due to insufficient safety data
Children: Not recommended due to insufficient safety data
Elderly: Generally considered safe at standard doses, but may start with lower doses due to potential altered drug metabolism
Liver Disease: Use with caution as BioPerine affects liver enzymes involved in drug metabolism
Kidney Disease: No specific contraindications, but use with caution due to limited research
Allergic Reactions
Allergic reactions to BioPerine are rare but possible. Individuals with known allergies to black pepper or other members of the Piperaceae family should avoid BioPerine.
Regulatory Status
Fda Status
BioPerine is generally recognized as safe (GRAS) in the United States when used as a dietary supplement ingredient. It is regulated as a dietary supplement ingredient under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994. The FDA does not approve dietary supplements for safety and effectiveness before they are marketed. However, manufacturers must ensure their products are safe and properly labeled.
BioPerine cannot be marketed with claims to diagnose, treat, cure, or prevent any disease.
International Status
Eu: In the European Union, piperine extracts like BioPerine are regulated under the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) as a food supplement ingredient. It is generally permitted for use in food supplements, but health claims are strictly regulated and must be authorized by EFSA before they can be used in marketing.
Canada: Health Canada regulates BioPerine as a Natural Health Product (NHP) ingredient. Products containing BioPerine must have a Natural Product Number (NPN) to be legally sold in Canada. Health Canada has established specific monographs for black pepper extracts that outline approved uses and dosages.
Australia: The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates BioPerine as a complementary medicine ingredient in Australia. Products containing BioPerine must be listed or registered on the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) before they can be marketed.
Japan: In Japan, BioPerine may be regulated as a food additive or ‘Foods with Functional Claims’ ingredient, depending on its use and marketing claims.
India: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) regulates BioPerine as a food supplement ingredient. As India is a major producer of black pepper and piperine extracts, there are specific standards for quality and purity.
Patent Status
BioPerine® is a patented product of Sabinsa Corporation. The original patents covered the specific extraction and standardization process, as well as methods of use for enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients. Some of the original patents have expired, but Sabinsa continues to hold trademarks and newer patents related to specific applications and formulations of BioPerine.
Labeling Requirements
Us: Must be listed in the Supplement Facts panel as ‘Black Pepper Extract (Piper nigrum) (fruit) [standardized to 95% piperine]’ or similar wording. The term ‘BioPerine®’ can be used if it’s the patented ingredient from Sabinsa Corporation, along with the appropriate trademark symbol.
Eu: Must be listed in the ingredients list with its specific name. Health claims are strictly regulated and must be pre-approved by EFSA.
Canada: Must comply with Natural Health Products Regulations for labeling, including proper ingredient identification, recommended dose, and cautionary statements.
Approved Claims
Structure Function: In the US, structure/function claims such as ‘supports nutrient absorption’ or ‘enhances bioavailability of nutrients’ are permitted with appropriate disclaimer statements.
Health Claims: No specific health claims have been approved by major regulatory agencies. Any claims must be supported by scientific evidence and comply with regional regulations.
Regulatory Challenges
The primary regulatory challenges for BioPerine relate to its potential to affect drug metabolism and increase the bioavailability of medications. This raises concerns about potential drug interactions, which manufacturers must address through appropriate warnings and contraindications on product labels. Additionally, as a bioavailability enhancer, BioPerine may alter the absorption of other supplement ingredients, potentially affecting their safety profiles at established dosages.
Synergistic Compounds
| Compound | Synergy Mechanism | Evidence Rating |
|---|---|---|
| Curcumin | BioPerine inhibits glucuronidation of curcumin in the liver and intestines, preventing its rapid metabolism and elimination. It also enhances intestinal absorption through effects on transporters and blood flow. This combination can increase curcumin bioavailability by up to 2000%. | 5 |
| Coenzyme Q10 | BioPerine enhances CoQ10 absorption by inhibiting enzymes involved in its metabolism and increasing intestinal permeability. Clinical studies show approximately 30% greater bioavailability when combined. | 4 |
| Resveratrol | BioPerine inhibits the glucuronidation and sulfation of resveratrol, significantly increasing its bioavailability and extending its half-life in the bloodstream. | 3 |
| Vitamin B6 | BioPerine enhances the absorption of vitamin B6 through increased intestinal permeability and blood flow, with studies showing up to 2.5 times greater bioavailability. | 3 |
| Selenium | BioPerine enhances selenium absorption through effects on intestinal transporters and metabolism, with approximately 30% increased bioavailability reported. | 3 |
| Beta-carotene | BioPerine enhances beta-carotene absorption through increased intestinal permeability and inhibition of metabolic enzymes, with approximately 60% increased bioavailability reported. | 3 |
| Vitamin C | BioPerine may enhance vitamin C absorption through effects on intestinal transporters and blood flow, with some studies suggesting 50-80% increased bioavailability. | 2 |
| Iron | BioPerine may enhance iron absorption by increasing intestinal blood flow and potentially through direct effects on iron transporters. Studies show variable increases in bioavailability ranging from 40-200%. | 3 |
| Turmeric (whole herb) | BioPerine enhances the bioavailability of multiple active compounds in turmeric beyond just curcumin, including other curcuminoids and turmerones, providing more comprehensive benefits than curcumin alone. | 4 |
| EGCG (from green tea) | BioPerine may inhibit the glucuronidation and sulfation of EGCG, potentially increasing its bioavailability and extending its activity in the body. | 2 |
| Quercetin | BioPerine may inhibit the glucuronidation and sulfation of quercetin, potentially increasing its bioavailability and extending its activity in the body. | 2 |
| Berberine | BioPerine may enhance berberine absorption by inhibiting P-glycoprotein efflux transporters and metabolic enzymes that normally limit berberine bioavailability. | 3 |
Antagonistic Compounds
| Compound | Interaction Type | Evidence Rating |
|---|---|---|
| Medications metabolized by CYP3A4 | BioPerine inhibits CYP3A4 enzymes, which can increase blood levels of medications metabolized by this pathway. This could potentially lead to increased side effects or toxicity of these medications. Examples include certain statins, benzodiazepines, calcium channel blockers, and immunosuppressants. | 4 |
| Blood thinners (warfarin, aspirin, etc.) | BioPerine may enhance the effects of anticoagulant and antiplatelet medications, potentially increasing the risk of bleeding. This is due to both potential direct effects on platelet function and indirect effects through altered drug metabolism. | 3 |
| Phenytoin | BioPerine may increase blood levels of phenytoin by inhibiting its metabolism, potentially leading to increased side effects or toxicity. | 3 |
| Propranolol | Clinical studies have shown that BioPerine can significantly increase propranolol blood levels by inhibiting its metabolism, potentially leading to enhanced effects and side effects. | 4 |
| Theophylline | Clinical studies have shown that BioPerine can significantly increase theophylline blood levels by inhibiting its metabolism, potentially leading to enhanced effects and side effects. | 4 |
| MAO inhibitors | Theoretical interaction based on piperine’s potential effects on neurotransmitter systems. Concurrent use may lead to increased risk of side effects or altered efficacy. | 2 |
| Immunosuppressants (cyclosporine, tacrolimus) | BioPerine may increase blood levels of these medications by inhibiting CYP3A4 metabolism, potentially leading to increased immunosuppression and side effects. | 3 |
| Psychiatric medications | Many psychiatric medications are metabolized by CYP enzymes that BioPerine inhibits. This could potentially lead to increased blood levels and enhanced effects or side effects. | 3 |
| Sedatives and hypnotics | Many sedatives are metabolized by CYP enzymes that BioPerine inhibits. This could potentially lead to increased sedation and enhanced side effects. | 3 |
| Diabetes medications | BioPerine may enhance the hypoglycemic effects of diabetes medications, potentially leading to increased risk of hypoglycemia. This may be due to both altered drug metabolism and potential direct effects on glucose metabolism. | 2 |
Cost Efficiency
Relative Cost
Low to Medium
Cost Per Effective Dose
Approximately $0.05-$0.20 per 5mg dose when purchased as a standalone supplement. When included in combination products, the cost contribution of BioPerine is typically minimal (less than $0.05 per dose).
Value Analysis
BioPerine offers excellent cost efficiency when considering its primary function as a bioavailability enhancer. By increasing the absorption of other supplements, it effectively multiplies their value by ensuring more of the active ingredients reach the bloodstream. For example, when combined with curcumin, the 2000% increase in bioavailability means that a 500mg dose of curcumin with BioPerine could theoretically deliver the same benefits as 10,000mg of curcumin alone. This dramatically improves the cost-effectiveness of the primary supplement.
For supplements with poor natural bioavailability like curcumin, resveratrol, and CoQ10, adding BioPerine can transform a marginally effective supplement into a highly effective one at minimal additional cost.
Price Comparison
Standalone Supplement: $10-15 for 120 capsules (10mg each), $15-25 for 120 capsules (10mg each) with additional quality certifications, $25-35 for 120 capsules (10mg each) with organic certification and premium branding
As Ingredient: When included in combination supplements, BioPerine typically adds approximately $1-3 to the retail price of the product while potentially increasing effectiveness significantly.
Cost Saving Strategies
Purchase BioPerine as a standalone supplement and add it to your existing supplement regimen rather than buying new combination products, Look for supplements that already include BioPerine to enhance absorption of poorly bioavailable ingredients, Due to its long shelf life, buying in bulk can reduce the per-dose cost, The standard 5mg dose is sufficient for most applications; higher doses generally don’t provide proportionally greater benefits
Economic Considerations
Direct Costs: The direct cost of BioPerine supplementation is low, especially considering its potential to enhance the effectiveness of other supplements.
Indirect Savings: By improving the absorption of other supplements, BioPerine may reduce the total amount (and therefore cost) of other supplements needed to achieve desired effects. Additionally, by potentially improving the efficacy of health-promoting supplements, it may contribute to reduced healthcare costs over time.
Market Trends
The market for BioPerine and other bioavailability enhancers has been growing steadily as consumers become more educated about supplement absorption issues. Increasingly, premium supplement manufacturers are including BioPerine in their formulations as a selling point and to differentiate their products from competitors. This trend is expected to continue as research further validates the benefits of enhanced bioavailability for various nutrients and phytochemicals.
Stability Information
Shelf Life
Properly stored BioPerine has a shelf life of approximately 2-3 years from the date of manufacture. The standardized extract is relatively stable compared to many other botanical extracts.
Storage Recommendations
Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight. Ideal storage temperature is between 59-77°F (15-25°C). Keep the container tightly closed to protect from moisture and air exposure. Refrigeration is not necessary but may extend shelf life in hot and humid climates.
Degradation Factors
Exposure to high temperatures (above 86°F/30°C) can accelerate degradation, Prolonged exposure to direct sunlight or UV light, High humidity and moisture exposure, Oxidation through repeated opening of containers and air exposure, Microbial contamination if exposed to moisture
Stability In Different Forms
Powder: Most susceptible to degradation due to increased surface area exposed to air and moisture. Should be stored with desiccants and in airtight containers.
Capsules: More stable than loose powder. Vegetable capsules may be more susceptible to moisture than gelatin capsules.
Tablets: Generally stable due to compression and often contain excipients that enhance stability.
Combined Supplements: Stability may be affected by interactions with other ingredients. Manufacturers typically account for this in formulation.
Indicators Of Degradation
Color changes (darkening or fading of the normally yellowish-brown color), Development of unusual odor (different from the natural peppery aroma), Clumping or hardening of powder, Reduced effectiveness in enhancing bioavailability of other supplements
Packaging Considerations
BioPerine is best packaged in opaque, airtight containers that protect from light, moisture, and oxygen. Amber glass bottles, aluminum blister packs, or high-density polyethylene (HDPE) bottles with desiccants are commonly used. Some manufacturers use oxygen absorbers or nitrogen flushing during packaging to extend shelf life.
Stability Testing Methods
High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to measure piperine content over time, Accelerated stability testing under various temperature and humidity conditions, Real-time stability testing to confirm shelf life estimates, Bioavailability enhancement assays to confirm functional stability
Sourcing
Synthesis Methods
- Extraction from black pepper using organic solvents (ethanol, methanol, or acetone)
- Supercritical fluid extraction using CO2
- Chemical synthesis from piperonal and piperidine (less common for supplements)
- Standardization to minimum 95% piperine content for BioPerine
Natural Sources
- Black pepper (Piper nigrum) – primary source, contains 5-9% piperine
- Long pepper (Piper longum) – contains 1-2% piperine
- White pepper (processed Piper nigrum) – contains 4-8% piperine
Quality Considerations
High-quality BioPerine should be standardized to contain a minimum of 95% piperine. The extraction process should be carefully controlled to minimize solvent residues and potential contaminants. Look for products that have been tested for heavy metals, pesticides, and microbial contamination. The patented BioPerine® product by Sabinsa Corporation undergoes rigorous quality control and has been used in most clinical studies. Third-party testing and certification can provide additional assurance of quality and purity. Organic sourcing of the black pepper used for extraction may reduce exposure to pesticides and other agricultural chemicals.
Geographical Sources
- India – major producer of black pepper and BioPerine
- Vietnam – significant black pepper producer
- Brazil – growing black pepper producer
- Indonesia – traditional black pepper producer
- Malaysia – quality black pepper producer
Processing Methods
- Traditional extraction involves grinding dried black pepper fruits and using solvent extraction with ethanol or methanol, followed by filtration, concentration, and crystallization to isolate piperine.
- Modern processing typically uses supercritical fluid extraction with CO2, which eliminates solvent residues. This is followed by standardization to ensure consistent 95% piperine content in BioPerine products.
- The patented BioPerine process by Sabinsa Corporation involves proprietary extraction and standardization methods to ensure consistent potency and bioavailability enhancement properties.
Sustainability Considerations
Black pepper is generally considered a sustainable crop when grown using responsible agricultural practices. It is a perennial vine that can produce for 20+ years, requiring less frequent replanting than annual crops. However, conventional pepper farming may involve deforestation and heavy pesticide use in some regions. Look for suppliers that support sustainable farming practices and fair trade relationships with pepper farmers.
Historical Usage
Black pepper (Piper nigrum), the source of piperine and BioPerine, has been used for thousands of years across multiple civilizations. In ancient India, black pepper was a cornerstone of Ayurvedic medicine, where it was known as ‘Maricha’ and valued not only as a culinary spice but also for its medicinal properties. Ayurvedic practitioners recognized its ability to enhance the bioavailability of other herbs and remedies, using it in formulations called ‘Yogavahi’ (substances that enhance the therapeutic action of other drugs). The ancient text ‘Charaka Samhita’ (dating back to approximately 300-200 BCE) mentions black pepper for treating respiratory conditions, poor digestion, and as a detoxifying agent.
In traditional Chinese medicine, dating back over 2,000 years, black pepper (known as ‘Hu Jiao’) was used to treat digestive disorders, relieve pain, and reduce inflammation. It was often combined with other herbs to enhance their effectiveness, demonstrating an early understanding of its bioavailability-enhancing properties. Ancient Greek and Roman civilizations highly valued black pepper, with Hippocrates prescribing it for various ailments. Pliny the Elder documented its medicinal uses in his ‘Natural History’ in the 1st century CE.
During the Middle Ages, black pepper was one of the most valuable trading commodities, sometimes worth its weight in gold, and was used both as a preservative and medicine. The spice trade routes, particularly the search for faster routes to obtain pepper, significantly influenced world exploration and colonization patterns. In traditional European medicine, black pepper was included in various medicinal preparations and was believed to help balance the body’s ‘humors.’ While piperine was first isolated from black pepper in 1819 by Hans Christian Ørsted, its bioavailability-enhancing properties weren’t scientifically documented until much later. The development of BioPerine as a standardized extract specifically for enhancing nutrient absorption is relatively recent, occurring in the late 20th century.
Sabinsa Corporation patented the BioPerine process in the 1990s, transforming this traditional knowledge into a standardized, clinically studied supplement ingredient. Modern scientific research has validated many of the traditional uses of black pepper and piperine, particularly its ability to enhance the absorption of other compounds, demonstrating how ancient wisdom often precedes scientific confirmation.
Scientific Evidence
Evidence Rating
Key Studies
Meta Analyses
Feng X, Liu Y, Wang X, Di X. Effects of piperine on the intestinal permeability and pharmacokinetics of linarin: In vitro and in vivo studies. Biopharm Drug Dispos. 2014;35(1):2-8., Dudhatra GB, Mody SK, Awale MM, et al. A comprehensive review on pharmacotherapeutics of herbal bioenhancers. ScientificWorldJournal. 2012;2012:637953.
Ongoing Trials
Investigation of piperine’s effects on the bioavailability of various polyphenols and antioxidants, Clinical evaluation of piperine in combination with various nutraceuticals for enhanced efficacy, Long-term safety assessment of piperine supplementation in healthy adults
Research Gaps
Long-term safety studies in diverse populations, Comprehensive evaluation of drug interactions, Optimal dosing strategies for different nutrients and drugs, Effects in special populations (elderly, pediatric, etc.), Comparative studies between different bioavailability enhancers
Evidence Strength By Application
Curcumin Bioavailability: Strong – multiple clinical trials
Coq10 Bioavailability: Strong – clinical trials
General Nutrient Absorption: Moderate – limited clinical data
Thermogenic Effects: Moderate – limited clinical data
Anti Inflammatory Effects: Preliminary – mostly preclinical data
Cognitive Benefits: Preliminary – mostly preclinical data
Disclaimer: The information provided is for educational purposes only and is not intended as medical advice. Always consult with a healthcare professional before starting any supplement regimen, especially if you have pre-existing health conditions or are taking medications.