Borage Oil

• Anti-inflammatory
• Skin barrier support
• Immune system modulation
• Hormonal balance

• Joint health
• Cardiovascular support
• Metabolic health
• Neurological function
• Respiratory health

Borage oil exerts its biological effects primarily through its exceptionally high content of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), which comprises 20-26% of the oil, making it the richest natural source of this essential fatty acid. GLA is a crucial intermediate in the metabolism of linoleic acid (LA) to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids and their derivatives. When consumed, GLA bypasses the rate-limiting delta-6-desaturase enzyme step that converts LA to GLA, which can be impaired in various conditions including aging, diabetes, hypertension, and certain nutritional deficiencies. Once absorbed, GLA is rapidly elongated to dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA), which serves as a precursor for the production of anti-inflammatory eicosanoids, particularly prostaglandin E1 (PGE1) and 15-hydroxy-DGLA.

These compounds exert potent anti-inflammatory effects by inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α). Additionally, DGLA can compete with arachidonic acid (AA) for cyclooxygenase (COX) and lipoxygenase (LOX) enzymes, potentially reducing the production of pro-inflammatory prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and leukotrienes. Unlike evening primrose oil, borage oil’s higher GLA concentration appears to more effectively inhibit the conversion of DGLA to AA, thus favoring the anti-inflammatory pathway. In skin health, GLA from borage oil is incorporated into cell membranes, improving barrier function and reducing transepidermal water loss.

This mechanism is particularly relevant in conditions characterized by impaired skin barrier function, such as atopic dermatitis. The fatty acids in borage oil also modulate the activity of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), a key transcription factor involved in inflammatory responses, and activate peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs), which regulate genes involved in lipid metabolism and inflammation. In rheumatoid arthritis, borage oil’s GLA content may suppress T-cell proliferation and reduce the production of inflammatory mediators in synovial tissue. For hormonal balance, particularly in premenstrual syndrome, the PGE1 derived from DGLA may help regulate hormone levels and reduce inflammatory processes associated with menstruation.

Borage oil also contains minor components, including polyphenols, tocopherols, and sterols, which may contribute to its antioxidant properties and overall biological effects, though these mechanisms are less well-characterized than its GLA-mediated actions.

The typical dosage range for Borage Oil is 1-3 grams per day, providing approximately 240-750 mg of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Due to its higher GLA concentration (20-26%) compared to evening primrose oil (8-14%), lower doses of borage oil can provide equivalent amounts of GLA. For general health maintenance, 1 gram daily is often sufficient, while therapeutic applications typically require 2-3 grams daily, divided into 2-3 doses.

Borage oil has a moderate to good absorption rate, with approximately 65-75% of the gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and other fatty acids being absorbed

when taken with food. Absorption occurs primarily in the small intestine, where pancreatic lipase enzymes break down the triglycerides into free fatty acids and monoglycerides, which can then be absorbed by intestinal cells. The higher concentration of GLA in borage oil compared to other GLA-containing oils may contribute to more efficient delivery of

this fatty acid to tissues.

Taking with meals containing some fat improves absorption by stimulating bile release and pancreatic enzyme secretion, Emulsified forms of borage oil may enhance absorption by increasing the surface area available for enzymatic action, Enteric-coated capsules can protect the oil from stomach acid degradation and deliver more intact oil to the small intestine, Liposomal delivery systems may improve cellular uptake of the fatty acids, Micronized formulations increase the surface area of the oil, potentially enhancing absorption, Co-administration with lipase enzymes may enhance breakdown and absorption in individuals with compromised digestive function, Combining with phospholipids (as in some advanced formulations) may enhance incorporation into cell membranes, Taking with vitamin E (a fat-soluble antioxidant) may protect the unsaturated fatty acids from oxidation during digestion, Avoiding high-fiber foods immediately before or after supplementation, as fiber can bind to fatty acids and reduce absorption

Borage oil is best taken with meals, particularly those containing some fat, to maximize absorption. Dividing the daily dose into 2-3 smaller doses taken with different meals throughout the day may improve overall absorption compared to a single large dose. For conditions like rheumatoid arthritis or atopic dermatitis, consistent daily dosing is more important than specific timing. For premenstrual syndrome, some practitioners recommend starting supplementation 7-10 days before expected menstruation and continuing throughout the cycle.

Taking the last dose of the day with dinner rather than immediately before bed may reduce the potential for mild digestive discomfort in sensitive individuals. The therapeutic effects of borage oil typically develop gradually over weeks to months of consistent use, so timing should prioritize consistency and long-term adherence rather than acute effects. If taking multiple supplements, separating borage oil from mineral supplements (especially iron and calcium) by at least 2 hours may improve absorption of both.

• Mild gastrointestinal disturbances (nausea, soft stools, abdominal discomfort)
• Headache
• Increased risk of bruising at high doses
• Allergic reactions (rare, primarily in those with plant allergies)
• Potential worsening of temporal lobe epilepsy (rare)
• Mild inflammatory reactions in some individuals (paradoxical effect)
• Skin rash (uncommon)
• Belching or fishy aftertaste (more common with higher doses)

• Bleeding disorders or hemophilia
• Scheduled surgery (discontinue 2 weeks prior)
• History of seizure disorders, particularly temporal lobe epilepsy
• Pregnancy (due to potential uterine-stimulating effects)
• Known allergy to plants in the Boraginaceae family
• Schizophrenia (some case reports of worsening symptoms)
• Severe liver disease (due to altered fatty acid metabolism)
• Hormone-sensitive cancers (theoretical concern due to potential hormonal effects)

• Anticoagulant and antiplatelet medications (warfarin, aspirin, clopidogrel) – may increase bleeding risk
• Antipsychotic medications – potential for reduced efficacy or increased side effects
• Anti-seizure medications – potential for reduced seizure threshold
• Phenothiazines – may increase risk of seizures
• NSAIDs – potential for additive anti-inflammatory effects or increased bleeding risk
• Blood pressure medications – theoretical interaction due to effects on prostaglandin synthesis
• Immunosuppressants – potential modulation of immune effects
• Hormone therapies – may alter hormonal effects due to influence on prostaglandin synthesis
• Cytochrome P450 substrates – some evidence suggests GLA may affect CYP enzyme activity

The upper limit for safe consumption is generally considered to be 4 grams of borage oil daily (providing approximately 1000 mg of GLA). Higher doses have not shown additional benefits in clinical studies and may increase the risk of side effects, particularly gastrointestinal disturbances and bleeding risk. Long-term use (beyond 1 year) at doses exceeding 3 grams daily should be monitored by a healthcare provider. There is no established toxic dose, and acute overdose is unlikely to cause serious harm beyond digestive discomfort.

An important safety consideration specific to borage oil is its potential content of pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), which are hepatotoxic compounds naturally present in the borage plant. High-quality borage oil supplements should be certified PA-free or contain levels below detectable limits (<0.5-1 ppm). Consumers should select products from reputable manufacturers that test for and remove these compounds during processing.

In the United States, borage oil is regulated as a dietary supplement under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994. It is not approved as a drug for the treatment of any medical condition. As a supplement, manufacturers cannot make specific claims about treating, curing, or preventing diseases, but can make structure/function claims about its effects on normal body functions. The FDA requires that these claims be accompanied by a disclaimer stating that they have not been evaluated by the FDA.

The FDA has expressed specific concerns about pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs) in borage products, which are potentially hepatotoxic compounds naturally present in the borage plant. While there is no formal regulation specifying maximum PA levels in borage oil supplements, the FDA has indicated that these compounds should be removed or reduced to undetectable levels during processing. The FDA has issued warning letters to some companies marketing borage oil with unapproved drug claims, particularly for conditions like rheumatoid arthritis and eczema.

Eu: In the European Union, borage oil is primarily regulated as a food supplement under Regulation (EC) No 178/2002 (General Food Law) and Directive 2002/46/EC on food supplements. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has not approved any health claims for borage oil under Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006 on nutrition and health claims for foods. The EU has established specific limits for pyrrolizidine alkaloids in food supplements, including borage oil products. According to Commission Regulation (EU) 2020/2040, the maximum level of PAs in food supplements containing herbal ingredients is 400 μg/kg. Products exceeding this limit cannot be legally marketed in the EU. In Germany, borage oil is included in the Commission E monographs, which provide guidelines for herbal medicinal products.

Canada: Health Canada has approved borage oil as a Natural Health Product (NHP) with specific monographs outlining approved uses, doses, and safety information. It is approved for use as a source of essential fatty acids for the maintenance of good health. Products must have a Natural Product Number (NPN) on the label, indicating they have been assessed by Health Canada for safety, efficacy, and quality. Health Canada has established specific quality standards for borage oil products, including minimum GLA content requirements and limits on pyrrolizidine alkaloid content.

Australia: The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates borage oil as a listed complementary medicine. It can be included in the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG) for specific indications related to its traditional use and nutritional properties. Claims are limited to supporting general health and non-serious conditions. The TGA has established specific quality standards for borage oil products, including requirements for PA testing and limits. Products containing borage oil must comply with the requirements outlined in the Therapeutic Goods (Standard for Specified Herbs and their Components) Order, which sets limits for pyrrolizidine alkaloids.

Japan: In Japan, borage oil is regulated as a non-pharmaceutical health food under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. It falls under the category of ‘Foods with Function Claims’ (FFC) system, which allows for certain health claims based on scientific evidence, though these are more limited than pharmaceutical claims. Japanese regulations include specific quality standards for borage oil, particularly regarding pyrrolizidine alkaloid content.

Uk: Following Brexit, the UK has maintained similar regulations to the EU regarding borage oil as a food supplement. The UK Food Standards Agency (FSA) oversees the safety of borage oil products, with particular attention to pyrrolizidine alkaloid content. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) regulates any products making medicinal claims.

Medium to High

The typical cost for borage oil ranges from $0.30 to $1.00 per gram of oil, or approximately $0.60 to $3.00 per day for a standard therapeutic dose of 2-3 grams. Premium, organic, or PA-free certified formulations tend to be at the upper end of this range, while standard formulations from mass-market brands are at the lower end. When calculated based on GLA content (the primary active component), the cost is approximately $1.50 to $5.00 per gram of GLA, with an effective daily dose of GLA (400-750 mg) costing between $0.60 and $3.75. This makes borage oil generally more cost-efficient than evening primrose oil when comparing equivalent amounts of GLA, as borage oil contains approximately twice the concentration of GLA (20-26% vs.

8-14% in evening primrose oil).

Borage oil offers good value for specific conditions with stronger evidence, such as rheumatoid arthritis, where the cost-to-benefit ratio is more favorable. For rheumatoid arthritis, a 3-6 month trial (typical time needed to see benefits) would cost approximately $60-$540, which is considerably less than many conventional treatments and may allow for reduction in medication use in some patients. The value proposition is less clear for conditions with weaker evidence, such as atopic dermatitis, where clinical studies have shown mixed results. For these conditions, individual response varies significantly, making the cost-benefit assessment more personal.

Compared to other sources of GLA, borage oil is generally the most cost-efficient source on a per-gram-of-GLA basis. Evening primrose oil typically costs more for equivalent GLA content, while black currant seed oil is generally the most expensive GLA source. The cost efficiency can be improved by selecting products with verified GLA content, PA-free certification, and good stability (proper packaging and antioxidant protection), as poorly manufactured products may contain degraded oil or potentially harmful pyrrolizidine alkaloids. For general health maintenance and mild symptoms, lower doses (1-1.5 grams daily) may be sufficient, improving the cost-to-benefit ratio.

Some health insurance plans or flexible spending accounts may cover borage oil with a prescription or letter of medical necessity for specific conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, potentially reducing out-of-pocket costs. Overall, borage oil represents a moderate investment for conditions with good evidence and may be worth a therapeutic trial before more expensive or invasive conventional treatments for conditions like rheumatoid arthritis. Its higher GLA content makes it more cost-efficient than evening primrose oil for those specifically seeking GLA supplementation.

Properly packaged and stored borage oil typically has a shelf life of 12-24 months from the date of manufacture. Products stabilized with additional antioxidants may extend

this to 18-24 months. Once opened, liquid oil should ideally be used within 2-3 months,

while sealed capsules remain stable until their expiration date if stored properly. Borage oil is generally less stable than some other oils due to its high content of polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly GLA, which are prone to oxidation.

Store borage oil in a cool, dark place away from direct sunlight, heat sources, and moisture. Refrigeration is strongly recommended for liquid oil after opening to slow oxidation processes, and is advisable even for unopened bottles to extend shelf life. Sealed capsules should be stored below 20°C (68°F), with refrigeration being optimal but not essential if the environment is cool and dark. Keep containers tightly closed when not in use to minimize exposure to oxygen.

Avoid storing near strong-smelling substances as the oil can absorb odors. If capsules develop a strong, unpleasant smell or taste (resembling fish or rancid fat), this indicates oxidation and they should be discarded. Most manufacturers use dark amber or opaque containers to protect the oil from light-induced degradation. For long-term storage of opened liquid oil, transferring to smaller containers to minimize air space can help reduce oxidation.

Exposure to oxygen (primary degradation pathway through oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids), Heat (accelerates oxidation reactions; each 10°C increase approximately doubles the rate of degradation), Light exposure (particularly UV light, which promotes photo-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids), Moisture (can promote hydrolytic rancidity and microbial growth), Metal contaminants (especially copper and iron, which catalyze oxidation reactions), Repeated opening of containers (increases oxygen exposure), Fluctuating temperatures (can cause condensation inside containers, promoting degradation), Extended storage beyond expiration date (natural antioxidants in the oil deplete over time), Improper packaging materials (some plastics may allow oxygen permeation), Exposure to environmental pollutants or strong odors (oil can absorb contaminants), Lack of antioxidants (natural or added tocopherols help prevent oxidation), Presence of pro-oxidants (certain compounds can accelerate oxidation processes)

Synthesis Methods

Natural Sources

Quality Considerations

Borage (Borago officinalis) has a rich history of traditional use dating back to ancient times, though the specific use of borage seed oil is a relatively modern development. The plant’s name may derive from the Arabic ‘abu rach’ (father of sweat) or Celtic ‘borrach’ (courage), reflecting some of its traditional applications. In ancient Greece and Rome, borage was valued for its ability to lift spirits and provide courage, with Pliny the Elder noting its use to ‘make men glad and merry.’ The Roman physician Dioscorides recommended borage for melancholy and depression. Throughout medieval Europe, borage leaves, flowers, and stems were used in traditional medicine and culinary applications, often added to wines and beverages as a mood enhancer—giving rise to the old saying ‘Borage for courage.’ Traditional herbalists employed the plant for treating fevers, coughs, depression, and skin disorders.

The leaves were used topically as poultices for inflammatory conditions and wounds. In traditional European medicine, borage was classified as having cooling and moistening properties, used to soothe inflammation and irritation. The specific extraction and use of borage seed oil, however, is primarily a development of the 20th century, coinciding with advances in extraction technology and the scientific understanding of essential fatty acids. The therapeutic potential of borage oil gained significant scientific attention in the 1970s and 1980s, when researchers began investigating its exceptionally high gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) content and potential applications for inflammatory conditions.

This research positioned borage oil as a more potent alternative to evening primrose oil, which had already gained popularity for similar uses. Unlike evening primrose oil, which has documented historical medicinal use of the seed oil itself, borage’s traditional applications primarily involved the leaves, flowers, and stems rather than the seeds or their oil. In modern times, borage oil has been studied for its potential benefits in rheumatoid arthritis, atopic dermatitis, and other inflammatory conditions, representing a scientific evolution of its traditional anti-inflammatory applications, though through a different part of the plant and different preparation methods.

Cameron M, Gagnier JJ, Chrubasik S. Herbal therapy for treating rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2011;(2):CD002948. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002948.pub2, Foster RH, Hardy G, Alany RG. Borage oil in the treatment of atopic dermatitis. Nutrition. 2010;26(7-8):708-718. doi:10.1016/j.nut.2009.10.014, Belch JJ, Hill A. Evening primrose oil and borage oil in rheumatologic conditions. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2000;71(1 Suppl):352S-356S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/71.1.352s

Borage Oil for Management of Inflammatory Skin Conditions (NCT04256135), Gamma-Linolenic Acid Supplementation in Metabolic Syndrome (NCT03582215), Effects of Borage Oil on Inflammatory Markers in Rheumatoid Arthritis (NCT02941822), Evaluation of Borage Oil for Diabetic Neuropathy (NCT03698461)