Daidzin

• Alcohol craving reduction
• Antioxidant
• Hormone balance
• Cardiovascular support

• Bone health
• Menopausal symptom relief
• Neuroprotection
• Anti-inflammatory
• Anticancer potential

Daidzin (daidzein-7-O-glucoside) exerts its diverse biological effects through multiple molecular pathways. As an O-glycosylated isoflavone, daidzin possesses a unique structural feature where a glucose molecule is attached to the C-7 position of the daidzein backbone via an oxygen atom (O-glycosidic bond). This structure influences its pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and biological activities. One of daidzin’s most well-documented mechanisms is its potent inhibition of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 (ALDH-2), the primary enzyme responsible for metabolizing acetaldehyde, a toxic byproduct of alcohol metabolism.

By inhibiting ALDH-2, daidzin causes an accumulation of acetaldehyde when alcohol is consumed, leading to unpleasant effects similar to those produced by disulfiram (Antabuse), a pharmaceutical used to treat alcoholism. This mechanism is believed to be responsible for daidzin’s ability to reduce alcohol consumption and cravings, as demonstrated in both animal models and human studies. The inhibition of ALDH-2 by daidzin is relatively selective, with an IC50 value in the low micromolar range. Daidzin also inhibits mitochondrial monoamine oxidase (MAO), particularly MAO-A, which is involved in the metabolism of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine.

By inhibiting MAO-A, daidzin may increase the levels of these neurotransmitters in the brain, potentially contributing to its effects on alcohol consumption and mood regulation. This MAO inhibition may also play a role in daidzin’s potential neuroprotective effects. In the body, daidzin undergoes metabolism primarily through hydrolysis of the O-glycosidic bond by intestinal β-glucosidases, releasing the aglycone daidzein. This conversion is significant because daidzein can be further metabolized by intestinal microbiota to produce equol, a metabolite with potent estrogenic and antioxidant activities.

However, the ability to produce equol varies among individuals based on their gut microbiome composition, with approximately 30-50% of adults being equol producers. As a phytoestrogen, daidzin (through its metabolite daidzein) has weak estrogenic activity due to its structural similarity to estradiol. Daidzein binds to estrogen receptors (ERs), particularly ER-β, with much lower affinity than estradiol. This selective ER modulation contributes to daidzin’s potential benefits for menopausal symptoms, bone health, and cardiovascular protection, while potentially reducing risks associated with stronger estrogens.

The estrogenic effects of daidzin are context-dependent, showing estrogen-like effects in low-estrogen environments (such as postmenopausal women) and potentially anti-estrogenic effects in high-estrogen environments through competitive binding to ERs. Daidzin and its metabolites demonstrate antioxidant properties through several mechanisms. They can directly scavenge reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals through their hydroxyl groups. Additionally, they can indirectly enhance antioxidant defenses by activating nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a transcription factor that regulates the expression of antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), and glutathione peroxidase (GPx).

In cardiovascular health, daidzin and its metabolites may improve endothelial function by increasing nitric oxide (NO) production through activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). They also demonstrate anti-inflammatory effects in vascular tissue by inhibiting the nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway, reducing the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and adhesion molecules. For bone health, daidzin’s metabolites may inhibit osteoclast activity while promoting osteoblast proliferation and differentiation, potentially leading to increased bone formation and reduced bone resorption. These effects are mediated through both ER-dependent and ER-independent pathways, including modulation of the receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa-B ligand (RANKL)/osteoprotegerin (OPG) system.

In cancer biology, daidzin and its metabolites have demonstrated antiproliferative and pro-apoptotic effects in various cancer cell lines, particularly hormone-dependent cancers such as breast and prostate cancer. These effects involve multiple mechanisms, including cell cycle arrest, induction of apoptosis, inhibition of angiogenesis, and modulation of estrogen-dependent signaling pathways. However, the clinical relevance of these findings remains uncertain, and the effects may be context-dependent based on hormone status and individual factors. The O-glycosidic bond in daidzin makes it more susceptible to hydrolysis compared to C-glycosides like puerarin, affecting its bioavailability and metabolism.

This structural feature results in significant first-pass metabolism, with most daidzin being converted to daidzein before reaching systemic circulation. Therefore, many of daidzin’s biological effects are likely mediated through its metabolites rather than the parent compound itself.

Optimal dosage ranges for daidzin vary depending on the form and intended use. In clinical studies and traditional use, the following dosage ranges have been established: For standardized kudzu root extract (typically containing 15-25% daidzin and other isoflavones), the common dosage range is 300-1200 mg daily, corresponding to approximately 45-300 mg of daidzin and related isoflavones. For soy isoflavone extracts (typically containing 5-15% daidzin), typical dosages range from 40-120 mg of total isoflavones daily, corresponding to approximately 2-18 mg of daidzin. For red clover extracts (typically containing 2-8% daidzin), typical dosages range from 40-160 mg of total isoflavones daily, corresponding to approximately 0.8-12.8 mg of daidzin.

Isolated daidzin supplements are rare, but when available, typical dosages range from 10-50 mg daily. It’s important to note that daidzin’s bioavailability is influenced by intestinal conversion to daidzein and potentially to equol, which varies significantly between individuals based on gut microbiome composition. For most health applications, starting with a lower dose and gradually increasing as needed and tolerated is recommended. Divided doses (2-3 times daily) are often preferred due to the relatively short half-life of daidzin and its metabolites.

Daidzin has moderate oral bioavailability, with significant first-pass metabolism. Unlike C-glycosides (such as puerarin), the O-glycosidic bond in daidzin (where glucose is attached to the C-7 position of daidzein via an oxygen atom) is readily hydrolyzed by intestinal β-glucosidases, releasing the aglycone daidzein. This conversion begins in the small intestine and continues in the large intestine, with most daidzin being converted to daidzein before reaching systemic circulation. The bioavailability of intact daidzin is estimated to be less than 5%, while the bioavailability of its metabolite daidzein ranges from 20-30%.

Daidzein can be further metabolized by intestinal microbiota to produce equol, a metabolite with potent estrogenic and antioxidant activities. However, the ability to produce equol varies significantly among individuals based on their gut microbiome composition, with approximately 30-50% of adults being equol producers. This variation in equol production may explain some of the inconsistencies observed in clinical responses to daidzin supplementation. Once absorbed, daidzein undergoes extensive phase II metabolism in the liver, primarily through glucuronidation and sulfation, forming conjugates that are more water-soluble and readily excreted.

These conjugates may be less biologically active than free daidzein, though some evidence suggests they can be deconjugated in target tissues, releasing the active compound. The plasma half-life of daidzein is relatively short, approximately 6-8 hours, necessitating multiple daily doses for sustained therapeutic effects. Daidzein and its metabolites demonstrate moderate distribution to various tissues, including breast, prostate, bone, and brain, though brain penetration is limited due to the blood-brain barrier.

Fermentation – fermented soy products (like natto, tempeh, and miso) contain more bioavailable forms of isoflavones due to bacterial β-glucosidase activity, which pre-converts daidzin to daidzein, Probiotic supplementation – certain probiotic strains can enhance the conversion of daidzein to equol in non-equol producers, potentially enhancing therapeutic effects, Liposomal formulations – can increase bioavailability by 2-3 fold by enhancing cellular uptake and protecting daidzin from degradation, Nanoemulsion formulations – can increase bioavailability by 2-4 fold by improving solubility and enhancing intestinal permeability, Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) – improve dissolution and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, Phospholipid complexes – enhance lipid solubility and membrane permeability, Combination with piperine – inhibits glucuronidation and sulfation, potentially increasing bioavailability by 30-50%, Microemulsions – provide a stable delivery system with enhanced solubility, Co-administration with fatty meals – can increase absorption by stimulating bile secretion and enhancing lymphatic transport, Cyclodextrin inclusion complexes – improve aqueous solubility while maintaining stability

Daidzin is best absorbed when taken with meals containing some fat, which can enhance solubility and stimulate bile secretion, improving dissolution and absorption. The presence of dietary fiber may reduce absorption, so supplements may be more effective than whole food sources for achieving specific therapeutic effects. Due to the relatively short half-life of daidzin’s metabolites (6-8 hours), divided doses (2-3 times daily) are recommended for maintaining consistent blood levels throughout the day. For alcohol craving reduction, some studies suggest taking kudzu extract (containing daidzin) 2-3 hours before anticipated alcohol consumption, while others support consistent daily dosing for cumulative effects.

The timing may depend on individual patterns of alcohol use and response to daidzin. For menopausal symptom relief, consistent daily dosing is recommended, with some women reporting better results when taking isoflavones in the morning for hot flashes that occur during the day, or in the evening for night sweats. For bone health and cardiovascular support, consistent daily dosing is important, as these effects develop gradually over time with regular use. Enhanced delivery formulations like liposomes or nanoemulsions may have different optimal timing recommendations based on their specific pharmacokinetic profiles, but generally follow the same principles of taking with food for optimal absorption.

Fermented soy products may provide more bioavailable forms of isoflavones due to pre-conversion of daidzin to daidzein, potentially offering more immediate effects compared to non-fermented sources.

• Gastrointestinal discomfort (mild to moderate, common)
• Nausea (uncommon)
• Headache (uncommon)
• Menstrual changes in women (uncommon, due to phytoestrogenic effects)
• Breast tenderness (rare, due to phytoestrogenic effects)
• Allergic reactions (rare, particularly in individuals with soy allergies)
• Facial flushing when consuming alcohol (common when used for alcohol craving reduction, due to ALDH-2 inhibition)
• Mild dizziness (rare)
• Skin rash (rare)
• Increased acetaldehyde levels when consuming alcohol (expected effect when used for alcohol craving reduction)

• Pregnancy and breastfeeding (due to phytoestrogenic effects and insufficient safety data)
• Hormone-sensitive conditions including hormone-dependent cancers (breast, uterine, ovarian) due to phytoestrogenic effects
• Individuals with soy or legume allergies (particularly for soy-derived daidzin)
• Individuals taking disulfiram or other medications for alcohol dependence (potential additive effects)
• Individuals with severe liver disease (due to potential effects on liver enzymes)
• Individuals scheduled for surgery (discontinue 2 weeks before due to potential effects on blood clotting)
• Children and adolescents (due to potential hormonal effects during development)
• Individuals with thyroid disorders (isoflavones may affect thyroid function in susceptible individuals)

• Hormone replacement therapy and hormonal contraceptives (may interfere with or enhance effects due to phytoestrogenic activity)
• Tamoxifen and other selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) (potential competitive binding to estrogen receptors)
• Anticoagulant and antiplatelet medications (may enhance antiplatelet effects, potentially increasing bleeding risk)
• Disulfiram and other medications for alcohol dependence (additive effects on alcohol metabolism)
• Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) (potential additive effects due to daidzin’s MAO inhibitory activity)
• Cytochrome P450 substrates (may affect the metabolism of drugs that are substrates for CYP1A2, CYP2C9, and CYP3A4)
• Thyroid medications (isoflavones may affect thyroid function in susceptible individuals)
• Antidiabetic medications (may enhance blood glucose-lowering effects)
• Drugs metabolized by UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGTs) (potential competition for these enzymes)
• Drugs with narrow therapeutic indices (warfarin, digoxin, etc.) require careful monitoring due to potential interactions

Based on clinical studies and traditional use, the upper limit for isoflavone supplementation (including daidzin) is generally considered to be 100-150 mg of total isoflavones daily for most adults. For kudzu extracts specifically, upper limits of 1500 mg of standardized extract daily have been used in clinical studies without significant adverse effects. Higher doses may increase the risk of hormonal effects and drug interactions, particularly in sensitive individuals. For general supplementation, doses exceeding these levels are not recommended without medical supervision.

The safety profile of daidzin and other isoflavones is generally favorable at recommended doses, with most side effects being mild and transient. However, the phytoestrogenic properties and potential for drug interactions necessitate caution, particularly with long-term use or in vulnerable populations. Individuals with hormone-sensitive conditions, thyroid disorders, or those taking medications with potential interactions should consult healthcare providers before use. The long-term safety of high-dose isoflavone supplementation (>100 mg daily for multiple years) has not been fully established, particularly regarding effects on hormone-sensitive tissues.

Some regulatory authorities, including the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), have expressed caution about long-term, high-dose isoflavone supplementation in certain populations, such as women with a history or family history of breast cancer.

In the United States, daidzin is not approved by the FDA as a drug. Soy, kudzu, and red clover extracts containing daidzin are regulated as dietary supplements under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994. Manufacturers cannot make specific disease treatment claims but may make general structure/function claims with appropriate disclaimers. The FDA has not evaluated the safety or efficacy of daidzin specifically.

Soy protein has received a qualified health claim from the FDA regarding its potential to reduce the risk of coronary heart disease when consumed as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. However, this claim is based on the protein content rather than the isoflavone (including daidzin) content. Soy, kudzu, and red clover are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) when used in traditional amounts as herbs or supplements.

Eu: In the European Union, daidzin is not approved as a medicinal product. Soy, kudzu, and red clover extracts are primarily regulated as food supplements under the Food Supplements Directive (2002/46/EC). The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) has evaluated several health claims related to soy isoflavones and has generally not found sufficient evidence to approve specific claims, particularly for menopausal symptoms and bone health. EFSA has expressed some caution regarding long-term, high-dose isoflavone supplementation in certain populations, such as women with a history or family history of breast cancer.

Japan: In Japan, soy isoflavones are recognized as ‘Foods for Specified Health Uses’ (FOSHU) for maintaining bone health. Kudzu root (kakkonto) is recognized as a traditional Kampo medicine ingredient and is included in several approved Kampo formulations. Isolated daidzin is not specifically approved as a pharmaceutical but is available as a component of various dietary supplements and functional foods.

China: In China, kudzu root (Ge Gen) is officially listed in the Chinese Pharmacopoeia as a traditional Chinese medicine and is approved for various indications including fever, neck stiffness, and thirst. Soy and its isoflavones are widely used in both traditional medicine and as functional food ingredients. Daidzin as an isolated compound is primarily used in research rather than as an approved therapeutic agent.

Canada: Health Canada regulates soy, kudzu, and red clover extracts as Natural Health Products (NHPs). Several products containing these extracts have been issued Natural Product Numbers (NPNs), allowing them to be sold with specific health claims, primarily related to menopausal symptom relief and bone health. Isolated daidzin is not specifically approved as a standalone ingredient.

Australia: The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates soy, kudzu, and red clover extracts as complementary medicines. Several products containing these extracts are listed on the Australian Register of Therapeutic Goods (ARTG). Traditional use claims are permitted with appropriate evidence of traditional use. Daidzin as an isolated compound is not specifically regulated.

Uk: In the United Kingdom, soy, kudzu, and red clover extracts are regulated as food supplements. They are not licensed as medicines and cannot be marketed with medicinal claims. The Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) has not issued specific guidance on daidzin or isoflavones.

Korea: In South Korea, soy and kudzu are recognized as traditional herbal medicines and are included in the Korean Pharmacopoeia. Isoflavone supplements are also regulated as functional foods with approved health claims related to menopausal symptom relief and bone health.

Low to Medium

Isolated daidzin supplements are rare and typically expensive when available, costing $1.00-$3.00 per day for effective doses (10-50 mg daily). Standardized soy isoflavone extracts (containing daidzin along with other isoflavones) typically cost $0.20-$0.80 per day for basic extracts (40-120 mg of total isoflavones daily) and $0.80-$1.50 per day for premium, highly standardized formulations. Standardized kudzu root extracts (containing daidzin and other isoflavones) typically cost $0.30-$1.00 per day for basic extracts (300-1200 mg daily) and $1.00-$2.00 per day for premium formulations. Standardized red clover extracts (containing daidzin and other isoflavones) typically cost $0.25-$0.75 per day for basic extracts (40-160 mg of total isoflavones daily) and $0.75-$1.50 per day for premium formulations.

Whole food sources of daidzin, such as soy foods (tofu, tempeh, edamame), are the most cost-effective option, typically costing $0.10-$0.50 per serving, though they provide variable and generally lower amounts of daidzin compared to supplements.

For alcohol craving reduction, kudzu extracts containing daidzin offer unique value that may justify their cost for individuals struggling with alcohol use. Clinical studies have demonstrated reduced alcohol consumption with relatively modest doses of kudzu extract, providing a potentially cost-effective complement to behavioral interventions for alcohol use disorder. When compared to pharmaceutical interventions for alcohol dependence, which can cost hundreds of dollars per month and often come with significant side effects, kudzu extracts represent a potentially valuable alternative or adjunctive approach. For menopausal symptom relief, soy and red clover isoflavones (containing daidzin) offer moderate value compared to other natural approaches.

Meta-analyses have shown modest but significant effects on hot flashes and other vasomotor symptoms. When compared to hormone replacement therapy, isoflavones are generally less effective but also have fewer risks and side effects, making them a reasonable option for women with mild to moderate symptoms or those who cannot or choose not to use hormone therapy. For bone health, the value proposition of isoflavones is moderate. Clinical studies have shown modest effects on bone mineral density, particularly in early postmenopausal women.

The cost-effectiveness improves when isoflavones are combined with calcium and vitamin D, which are essential for bone health. Long-term use (6+ months) is typically required for measurable effects on bone density, which should be considered when evaluating cost-effectiveness. For cardiovascular support, soy isoflavones offer moderate value. Studies have shown improvements in arterial compliance and endothelial function, though effects on lipid profiles have been inconsistent.

The cardiovascular benefits may be more pronounced in certain populations, such as postmenopausal women and individuals with existing cardiovascular risk factors. When comparing the cost-effectiveness of different sources of daidzin: Soy foods (tofu, tempeh, edamame) are the most cost-effective source of isoflavones, including daidzin, for general health maintenance. However, they provide variable and generally lower amounts of isoflavones compared to supplements. Soy isoflavone supplements offer a good balance of cost and standardized dosing for most health applications, particularly menopausal symptom relief and bone health.

Kudzu extracts are more expensive than soy supplements but offer unique benefits for alcohol craving reduction that may justify the higher cost for this specific application. Red clover extracts are comparably priced to soy supplements and may offer similar benefits, though with somewhat less clinical evidence. Enhanced delivery systems such as liposomes or nanoemulsions offer better bioavailability and potentially superior therapeutic outcomes, which may justify their higher cost for specific health conditions. However, for general health maintenance, standard formulations are likely more cost-effective.

Individual variation in isoflavone metabolism, particularly the ability to produce equol from daidzein, significantly affects the value proposition of daidzin supplementation. Equol producers (approximately 30-50% of adults) may experience greater benefits from the same dose of isoflavones compared to non-producers. Testing for equol producer status, though not widely available, could potentially improve the cost-effectiveness of isoflavone supplementation by identifying those most likely to benefit.

Pure daidzin has moderate stability, with a typical shelf life of 1-2 years when properly stored. The O-glycosidic bond (where glucose is attached to the C-7 position of daidzein via an oxygen atom) makes daidzin more susceptible to hydrolysis compared to C-glycosides like puerarin. Standardized isoflavone extracts containing daidzin typically have a shelf life of 1-2 years from the date of manufacture. Dried plant material (soy, kudzu root, red clover) properly stored can maintain acceptable isoflavone content for 1-2 years.

Fermented soy products have variable shelf lives depending on the specific product and storage conditions, ranging from a few days for fresh preparations to several months for properly preserved products. Traditional decoctions and liquid extracts have a much shorter shelf life, with optimal potency maintained for only a few days under refrigeration. Enhanced delivery formulations such as liposomes or nanoemulsions generally have shorter shelf lives of 1-2 years, depending on the specific formulation and preservative system.

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight in airtight, opaque containers. Refrigeration is recommended for liquid formulations and can extend shelf life of extracts containing daidzin. Protect from moisture, heat, oxygen, and light exposure, which can accelerate degradation. For research-grade pure daidzin, storage under inert gas (nitrogen or argon) at -20°C is recommended for maximum stability.

For dried plant material (soy, kudzu root, red clover), store in airtight containers away from light and moisture to preserve the isoflavone content. The addition of antioxidants such as vitamin E or ascorbic acid to formulations can help prevent oxidation and extend shelf life. Enhanced delivery formulations may have specific storage requirements provided by the manufacturer, which should be followed carefully to maintain stability and potency. Avoid repeated freeze-thaw cycles, particularly for liquid formulations, as this can destabilize the product.

For fermented soy products, follow specific storage instructions for each product, typically refrigeration for most preparations. For traditional decoctions, prepare fresh and consume within 24-48 hours, storing any remainder in the refrigerator.

Exposure to UV light and sunlight – causes photodegradation of the isoflavone structure, High temperatures (above 30°C) – accelerates decomposition and hydrolysis of the O-glycosidic bond, Moisture – promotes hydrolysis of the O-glycosidic bond and microbial growth, particularly in liquid formulations, Oxygen exposure – leads to oxidation, particularly affecting the hydroxyl groups, pH extremes – daidzin is most stable at slightly acidic to neutral pH (5-7), with increased degradation in strongly acidic or alkaline conditions, Enzymatic activity – β-glucosidases from various sources can hydrolyze the O-glycosidic bond, converting daidzin to daidzein, Metal ions (particularly iron and copper) – can catalyze oxidation reactions, Microbial contamination – particularly relevant for liquid formulations and fermented products, can lead to degradation of active compounds, Incompatible excipients in formulations – certain preservatives or other ingredients may interact negatively with daidzin, Repeated freeze-thaw cycles – can destabilize enhanced delivery formulations such as liposomes or nanoemulsions

Synthesis Methods

Natural Sources

Quality Considerations

Daidzin itself was not identified or isolated until the modern era, but it is a major bioactive constituent of several plants that have been used in traditional medicine systems for thousands of years. While the specific contribution of daidzin to the traditional uses of these plants was unknown to ancient practitioners, it is now recognized as one of the compounds responsible for many of their medicinal properties. Soy (Glycine max) has been a staple food in East Asian cultures for over 5,000 years, particularly in China, Japan, and Korea. Beyond its nutritional value, soy has been used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for various health purposes.

The earliest documented medicinal use of soy appears in the ‘Shennong Bencao Jing’ (Divine Farmer’s Classic of Materia Medica), compiled around 200-300 CE. In this ancient text, soybeans were described as having properties that benefit the spleen and stomach, moisten the intestines, and clear heat. In traditional Japanese and Korean medicine, soy products, particularly fermented preparations like miso, natto, and tempeh, were valued for their health-promoting properties. These fermented products, now known to contain more bioavailable forms of isoflavones due to the conversion of glycosides like daidzin to aglycones like daidzein, were used to support digestive health, strengthen the body, and promote longevity.

Kudzu root (Pueraria lobata, also known as Ge Gen in Chinese) has an even longer documented history in traditional medicine. It was first described in the ‘Shennong Bencao Jing’ as a superior herb for treating fevers, headaches, neck stiffness, and thirst. By the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE), kudzu root had become an important herb in many classical TCM formulations. The famous physician Sun Simiao included kudzu in numerous prescriptions in his works ‘Qianjin Yaofang’ (Thousand Golden Prescriptions) and ‘Qianjin Yifang’ (Supplement to the Thousand Golden Prescriptions).

The ‘Mingyi Bielu’ (Supplementary Records of Famous Physicians), compiled around 500 CE, noted kudzu’s use for treating alcohol intoxication, representing one of the earliest documented uses of kudzu for alcohol-related conditions. This traditional use aligns with modern research on daidzin’s effects on alcohol metabolism and consumption. In traditional Japanese Kampo medicine, kudzu root (known as kakkonto) has been used since at least the 8th century CE. It is a key ingredient in kakkonto, a classical formula used to treat the common cold, influenza, and headaches.

In Korean traditional medicine, kudzu (known as galgeun) has been used similarly to its applications in Chinese medicine. Red clover (Trifolium pratense) has a rich history of use in European folk medicine, though its documented medicinal use is more recent compared to soy and kudzu. Traditional herbalists in Europe used red clover for respiratory conditions, skin disorders, and as a blood purifier. In the 19th century, it became part of various herbal formulations for treating cancer and other chronic diseases.

Native American tribes also used red clover for respiratory and skin conditions. The modern scientific study of isoflavones, including daidzin, began in the mid-20th century. Daidzin was first isolated and characterized in the 1960s, and its structure was elucidated as daidzein-7-O-glucoside. The discovery of daidzin’s inhibitory effects on aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) and its potential for reducing alcohol consumption came much later, in the 1990s, through the work of researchers like Wing Ming Keung and Bert L.

Vallee at Harvard Medical School. Their groundbreaking studies on daidzin’s antidipsotropic (alcohol-aversive) effects provided scientific validation for the traditional use of kudzu for alcohol-related conditions. The interest in isoflavones, including daidzin, expanded significantly in the 1990s and early 2000s with the growing recognition of their potential health benefits, particularly for menopausal symptoms, cardiovascular health, and bone health. This led to the development of various isoflavone supplements and functional foods enriched with isoflavones from soy, kudzu, and red clover.

The traditional use of soy in East Asian diets has been associated with lower rates of certain hormone-dependent cancers, cardiovascular disease, and menopausal symptoms compared to Western populations. This observation sparked extensive research into the potential health benefits of soy isoflavones, including daidzin and its metabolites. Similarly, the traditional use of kudzu for alcohol-related conditions has been validated by modern research on daidzin’s effects on alcohol metabolism and consumption. Today, daidzin is recognized as one of the key bioactive compounds in these traditionally used plants, providing a scientific basis for many of their historical applications while also revealing new potential therapeutic uses based on its unique pharmacological properties.

Clinical trials investigating the effects of isoflavone supplementation on cognitive function in postmenopausal women, with a focus on equol production status, Studies on the potential of kudzu extracts (containing daidzin) in reducing alcohol consumption and craving in individuals with alcohol use disorder, Investigations into the bone-preserving effects of isoflavones in different populations, including men and younger women, Research on the cardiovascular effects of isoflavones, particularly their impact on arterial compliance and endothelial function, Studies on the role of gut microbiota in determining individual responses to isoflavone supplementation, particularly the conversion of daidzin to daidzein and subsequently to equol, Investigations into novel delivery systems to enhance the bioavailability and targeted delivery of daidzin and other isoflavones