Marine Phytoplankton

Marine Phytoplankton exerts its biological effects through a complex array of bioactive compounds that work synergistically across multiple physiological pathways. At the core of its mechanism is superoxide dismutase (SOD), a powerful enzymatic antioxidant that catalyzes the conversion of superoxide radicals into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. The SOD in marine phytoplankton, particularly from strains like Nannochloropsis gaditana (TetraSOD), has exceptional stability and bioavailability compared to other food sources. This enzyme provides first-line defense against oxidative stress at the cellular level, protecting mitochondrial function and cellular components from free radical damage.

The high concentration of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), an omega-3 fatty acid, in marine phytoplankton contributes significantly to its anti-inflammatory properties. EPA serves as a precursor to specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) like resolvins and protectins, which actively resolve inflammation rather than merely suppressing it. Unlike fish oil, which contains EPA in triglyceride or ethyl ester forms requiring digestive processing, the EPA in marine phytoplankton exists in phospholipid form, which may enhance bioavailability and incorporation into cell membranes. This phospholipid-bound EPA can modulate cell membrane fluidity, affecting receptor function and cellular signaling pathways.

Marine phytoplankton contains a unique pigment profile including chlorophyll, fucoxanthin, and various carotenoids that contribute to its antioxidant capacity through different mechanisms than SOD. These pigments can neutralize different types of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS), providing broad-spectrum protection against oxidative damage. Fucoxanthin, in particular, has been shown to have unique metabolic effects, potentially enhancing mitochondrial uncoupling protein-1 (UCP1) expression, which may influence energy expenditure and metabolic health. The cellular oxygenation benefits attributed to marine phytoplankton stem from multiple mechanisms.

Its rich mineral content, including iron, copper, and manganese, supports hemoglobin synthesis and oxygen transport. Additionally, by protecting mitochondrial function through antioxidant activity, it helps maintain efficient cellular respiration and ATP production. The trace element profile of marine phytoplankton is exceptional, containing over 70 trace minerals in naturally occurring, bioavailable forms. These minerals serve as cofactors for hundreds of enzymatic reactions throughout the body, supporting everything from energy production to detoxification pathways.

Particularly notable is the selenium content, which supports glutathione peroxidase activity, complementing the antioxidant effects of SOD. Marine phytoplankton contains a complete amino acid profile, providing all essential amino acids in bioavailable forms. These amino acids support protein synthesis, neurotransmitter production, and serve as precursors for various bioactive peptides. The amino acid profile includes significant amounts of glycine, glutamine, and taurine, which have specific roles in detoxification, gut health, and neurological function.

The detoxification support provided by marine phytoplankton involves multiple pathways. Its chlorophyll content has demonstrated ability to bind to various toxins, potentially reducing their absorption. The sulfur-containing amino acids support glutathione production, a critical component of the body’s detoxification system. Additionally, the antioxidant compounds help neutralize reactive intermediates produced during phase I detoxification.

Marine phytoplankton contains unique polysaccharides with potential immunomodulatory effects. These complex carbohydrates may interact with pattern recognition receptors on immune cells, helping to balance immune responses without overstimulation. This may explain the adaptogenic-like effects reported by some users, where immune function is supported without triggering inflammatory responses. The neurological benefits of marine phytoplankton likely stem from multiple components.

The EPA content supports neuronal membrane health and signaling. Various antioxidants protect neuronal cells from oxidative damage, which is particularly important for brain tissue due to its high oxygen consumption and limited regenerative capacity. Additionally, certain peptides in marine phytoplankton may have neurotrophic properties, potentially supporting neuronal health and function.

The optimal dosage of Marine Phytoplankton varies based on the concentration and specific strain used in the product. For liquid concentrates (typically the most potent form), dosages range from 10-30 drops (approximately 0.5-1.5 mL) daily. For powder forms, typical dosages range from 250-1000 mg daily. Capsules and tablets generally provide 250-500 mg per serving, with recommendations for 1-2 servings daily.

Products standardized for specific compounds (like SOD or EPA) may have different dosing guidelines based on the concentration of these active components.

The bioavailability of nutrients in Marine Phytoplankton varies by compound type and formulation. The omega-3 fatty acids, primarily EPA, have enhanced bioavailability compared to fish oil sources due to their phospholipid form, with estimated absorption rates of 50-70% compared to 30-50% for fish oil triglycerides. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) from marine phytoplankton, particularly from strains like Nannochloropsis gaditana, demonstrates unusual stability in the digestive environment, with studies suggesting 15-25% may remain active after passing through the stomach, significantly higher than most dietary SOD sources. The trace minerals in marine phytoplankton exist in naturally chelated forms, which typically have absorption rates 1.5-2 times higher than inorganic mineral supplements.

Amino acids and small peptides have excellent bioavailability (80-90%) due to their pre-digested nature and the absence of complex protein structures that would require extensive breakdown. The cell size of marine phytoplankton (typically 1-5 micrometers) is small enough that some components may be absorbed directly through intestinal microfold cells (M cells) without requiring complete digestion, potentially enhancing bioavailability of certain compounds.

Liposomal delivery systems significantly improve bioavailability by protecting sensitive compounds from digestive degradation and enhancing cellular uptake, Consuming with a small amount of healthy fat improves absorption of fat-soluble components, including EPA and carotenoids, Microencapsulation technology can protect sensitive enzymes like SOD from stomach acid degradation, Cell-wall broken or micronized preparations improve nutrient accessibility and absorption, Liquid concentrates typically offer better bioavailability than powder forms due to pre-solubilization, Fermented preparations may enhance digestibility and nutrient absorption through partial pre-digestion, Consuming on an empty stomach may enhance absorption of certain water-soluble compounds, Combining with digestive enzymes may improve overall nutrient extraction, particularly from powder forms, Nano-emulsified formulations can significantly increase the bioavailability of lipophilic compounds, Avoiding simultaneous consumption with mineral-binding compounds like phytates or tannins (found in some teas, coffee, and high-fiber foods)

For general health benefits, Marine Phytoplankton can be consumed at any time of day, though consistent timing helps establish regular patterns of use. For energy enhancement, morning consumption on an empty or nearly empty stomach may maximize absorption and provide energizing effects throughout the day. When using primarily for its EPA content and cardiovascular benefits, taking with a meal containing some healthy fat may enhance absorption of these fatty acids. If digestive sensitivity occurs, taking with or shortly after meals can reduce potential discomfort.

For individuals using marine phytoplankton primarily for its antioxidant properties, consumption between meals may optimize absorption of these compounds. Dividing the daily dose into 2-3 smaller servings throughout the day may provide more consistent blood levels of beneficial compounds compared to a single large dose. For those using marine phytoplankton as part of a detoxification protocol, morning consumption with plenty of water may support detoxification processes that are naturally more active in the morning hours. If using multiple supplements, separating marine phytoplankton from iron supplements by at least 2 hours may reduce potential competition for absorption.

For individuals with compromised digestion, liquid concentrates taken directly under the tongue (sublingual administration) for 30-60 seconds before swallowing may enhance absorption of certain compounds by partially bypassing digestive processes.

• Mild digestive discomfort (nausea, bloating, loose stools) in some individuals, particularly when first introducing or with higher doses
• Temporary detoxification reactions in sensitive individuals (headache, fatigue, skin eruptions)
• Mild allergic reactions in rare cases (more common in individuals with seafood or algae allergies)
• Fishy taste or aftertaste, particularly with liquid concentrates
• Temporary changes in stool color (typically greener) due to chlorophyll content
• Potential for mild stimulant-like effects in some individuals (increased energy, slight jitteriness)
• Mild headache reported by some users during initial use
• Temporary increase in thirst due to mineral content

• Individuals with known allergy or hypersensitivity to marine products or algae
• Those with severe shellfish allergies should use caution due to potential cross-reactivity
• Individuals with bleeding disorders or on anticoagulant therapy should consult healthcare provider due to EPA content
• Caution advised during pregnancy and breastfeeding due to limited safety data
• Individuals with hyperthyroidism should use caution due to potential iodine content
• Those with severe autoimmune conditions should consult healthcare provider before use
• Individuals with phenylketonuria (PKU) should be aware of phenylalanine content
• Those scheduled for surgery should discontinue use 2 weeks prior due to potential blood-thinning effects

• Anticoagulant/antiplatelet medications (potential additive effect with EPA content, possibly increasing bleeding risk)
• Immunosuppressant medications (theoretical interaction due to immune-modulating properties)
• Thyroid medications (potential interaction due to iodine content)
• Blood pressure medications (potential mild additive effect, generally beneficial but monitor blood pressure)
• Diabetes medications (may enhance hypoglycemic effects, requiring monitoring)
• Iron supplements (potential reduced absorption if taken simultaneously)
• Cholesterol-lowering medications (potential beneficial interaction through complementary mechanisms)
• Photosensitizing medications (theoretical concern due to chlorophyll content)

No established toxic upper limit has been determined specifically for Marine Phytoplankton. Most clinical studies and extensive clinical experience suggest that doses up to 60 drops of liquid concentrate or 2000 mg of powder daily are well-tolerated by most healthy adults. The primary limiting factors are typically digestive tolerance and potential detoxification reactions rather than direct toxicity concerns. For most individuals, practical upper limits based on clinical experience suggest that doses of 30 drops of liquid concentrate or 1000 mg of powder daily provide optimal benefits while minimizing the risk of side effects.

Starting with lower doses (10 drops or 250 mg daily) and gradually increasing over 1-2 weeks is advisable to assess individual tolerance and minimize potential detoxification reactions. For concentrated extracts standardized for specific compounds like SOD or EPA, upper limits should be based on the manufacturer’s recommendations for those specific formulations. Quality marine phytoplankton supplements should be tested for potential contaminants including heavy metals, microplastics, and biotoxins, with results ideally available upon request.

Marine Phytoplankton is regulated as a dietary supplement in the United States under the Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA) of 1994. The FDA has not granted specific marine phytoplankton species Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS) status, though certain microalgae components (like EPA from algal sources) have received GRAS designation for specific applications. As a dietary supplement, marine phytoplankton products must comply with FDA regulations regarding manufacturing practices, labeling, and safety, but are not subject to pre-market approval for safety or efficacy. Manufacturers are not permitted to make specific disease treatment claims but can make structure/function claims (e.g., ‘supports cellular health’ or ‘may enhance antioxidant status’) with appropriate disclaimers.

The FDA requires that supplement labels accurately reflect the contents and that manufacturing follows Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) standards.

Eu: In the European Union, marine phytoplankton is regulated under the Novel Food Regulation (EU) 2015/2283. Certain species like Tetraselmis chuii have received novel food authorization, while others may require specific approval if they do not have a history of significant consumption before May 15, 1997. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) evaluates safety data for novel food applications. Products containing authorized species can be sold as food supplements under Directive 2002/46/EC. Health claims are strictly regulated under Regulation (EC) No 1924/2006, and currently, few specific authorized health claims exist for marine phytoplankton, though generic claims related to omega-3 fatty acids may apply to products with sufficient EPA content.

Canada: Health Canada regulates marine phytoplankton as a Natural Health Product (NHP). Products containing marine phytoplankton must have a Natural Product Number (NPN) to be legally sold in Canada. Health Canada has established specific quality requirements, including testing for marine biotoxins and heavy metals. Health claims are regulated and must be supported by evidence appropriate to the claim level.

Australia: The Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) regulates marine phytoplankton products as listed complementary medicines. Products must be manufactured according to Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) standards and can only make claims appropriate to their evidence level. The TGA has specific requirements for testing marine-derived products for contaminants.

Japan: Japan’s Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare permits certain marine phytoplankton species in food supplements under general food regulations. Some specific extracts or compounds from marine phytoplankton may qualify for Foods for Specified Health Uses (FOSHU) status when formulated into products with sufficient supporting evidence for specific health claims.

China: The China Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) regulates marine phytoplankton under health food regulations. Imported marine phytoplankton products must undergo registration and approval processes, including testing for contaminants.

South Korea: The Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) has approved certain marine microalgae as functional ingredients for health foods, particularly those with documented EPA content or antioxidant properties.

Israel: The Israeli Ministry of Health permits marine phytoplankton in dietary supplements with specific requirements for testing and labeling, particularly regarding heavy metals and marine biotoxins.

Medium to high compared to common dietary supplements, and high compared to other microalgae products

Typical retail pricing for Marine Phytoplankton varies significantly by formulation. Liquid concentrates, generally considered the most potent form, typically cost $1.50-$3.00 per daily dose (10-30 drops). Powder forms range from $1.00-$2.50 per effective daily dose (250-1000 mg). Capsules and tablets generally cost $1.00-$2.00 per serving but may provide lower amounts of active compounds compared to liquid concentrates.

Specialized delivery systems like liposomal formulations command premium prices, often 30-50% higher than conventional forms. Products standardized for specific compounds like SOD or EPA typically cost more than general marine phytoplankton supplements.

Marine Phytoplankton represents moderate value as a nutritional supplement, particularly when its unique compounds and comprehensive nutrient profile are considered. The price premium over other microalgae like spirulina or chlorella (which typically cost 50-70% less) may be justified for individuals specifically seeking the unique compounds found in marine phytoplankton, particularly its stable form of SOD and phospholipid-bound EPA. The value proposition is strongest for individuals who: 1) Are specifically seeking the antioxidant benefits of marine phytoplankton’s SOD, which has demonstrated unusual stability compared to other dietary sources; 2) Prefer marine-sourced EPA over fish oil or want the phospholipid-bound form for potentially enhanced bioavailability; 3) Have found subjective benefits from marine phytoplankton that they haven’t experienced with other supplements; 4) Value the comprehensive trace mineral profile that reflects the mineral-rich ocean environment. For maximum cost efficiency, consumers should compare products based on processing methods and standardization rather than just price.

Liquid concentrates, while more expensive per unit weight, often provide more bioavailable forms of key compounds than powder forms. The additional cost of liposomal or microencapsulated formulations may be justified by significantly enhanced bioavailability, particularly for individuals with compromised digestion. When evaluating marine phytoplankton against other supplements for specific health goals, it may offer unique benefits for antioxidant support and cellular energy that justify its cost compared to conventional antioxidants. However, for omega-3 supplementation alone, other sources like algal oil may offer better value.

For trace mineral supplementation, the cost-effectiveness of marine phytoplankton is moderate to low, with other options like trace mineral complexes offering similar benefits at lower cost. The environmental sustainability of marine phytoplankton cultivation, which requires significantly fewer resources than terrestrial agriculture or fish farming, may represent additional value for environmentally conscious consumers. Consumers should be wary of dramatically lower-priced marine phytoplankton products, as these may indicate inadequate testing for contaminants or lower-quality cultivation and processing methods that could affect both safety and efficacy. For those on a budget, smaller amounts of high-quality marine phytoplankton may provide more benefit than larger amounts of lower-quality products, particularly given the potency of compounds like SOD that can be effective at relatively low doses.

Properly stored Marine Phytoplankton supplements typically have a shelf life of 18-24 months from date of manufacture for freeze-dried powder and 12-18 months for liquid concentrates. However, certain bioactive compounds begin to degrade earlier, particularly enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) and polyunsaturated fatty acids like EPA, which are susceptible to oxidation. For maximum potency, use within 6-12 months of opening the container. Liquid concentrates generally have shorter effective shelf lives than powder forms due to the increased potential for oxidation and microbial growth in liquid environments, even with preservatives.

Liposomal and microencapsulated formulations typically maintain potency longer than conventional forms due to the protective delivery systems.

Store in a cool, dry place away from direct sunlight, preferably below 70°F (21°C). Refrigeration is strongly recommended for liquid concentrates and can extend shelf life for all formulations by slowing oxidation and enzymatic degradation. Freezing is generally not recommended for liquid formulations as it can disrupt liposomal structures and emulsions, but may be suitable for powder forms for long-term storage. Once opened, ensure the container is tightly sealed after each use to prevent oxygen exposure, which rapidly degrades EPA and antioxidant compounds.

For powders, use a dry spoon to remove product to avoid introducing moisture. The EPA and other polyunsaturated fatty acids in marine phytoplankton are highly susceptible to oxidation, so minimizing air exposure is critical for maintaining potency. Some manufacturers include oxygen absorber packets in their products to extend shelf life; these should be kept in the container but not consumed. If purchasing in bulk quantities, consider transferring a portion to a smaller container for regular use while keeping the remainder sealed until needed.

For liquid concentrates, keeping the bottle upright helps prevent leakage around the cap area, which can lead to oxidation. Some premium products use airless pump dispensers to minimize oxygen exposure during use.

Oxygen: Exposure to air causes rapid oxidation of EPA and other polyunsaturated fatty acids, as well as many antioxidant compounds, Light: Direct sunlight and even bright indoor lighting can degrade photosensitive compounds, including chlorophyll and various carotenoids, Heat: Temperatures above 85°F (30°C) accelerate enzymatic degradation and oxidation reactions; even moderate heat over extended periods significantly reduces potency, Moisture: Promotes microbial growth and accelerates enzymatic degradation reactions, particularly in powder forms, pH extremes: Significant changes in pH can denature enzymes like SOD and affect the stability of other bioactive compounds, Transition metals: Iron and copper ions can catalyze oxidation reactions, accelerating degradation of EPA and antioxidants, Enzymes: Natural enzymes in marine phytoplankton can continue to break down other compounds over time if not properly deactivated during processing, Microbial contamination: Can lead to both safety issues and nutrient degradation, particularly in liquid formulations, Freeze-thaw cycles: Repeated freezing and thawing can damage cellular structures and liposomal delivery systems, Time: Even under optimal storage conditions, certain compounds naturally degrade over time, particularly enzymes and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Synthesis Methods

Natural Sources

Quality Considerations

Marine Phytoplankton has a relatively recent history of direct human consumption compared to many traditional medicinal plants and herbs. While phytoplankton has been indirectly consumed through seafood throughout human history (as it forms the base of the marine food chain), its deliberate cultivation and use as a nutritional supplement began primarily in the late 20th century. Coastal indigenous populations worldwide, including certain Native American tribes along the Pacific Northwest, Inuit communities in the Arctic, and traditional cultures in parts of Asia and Oceania, have long recognized the nutritional value of seafood from phytoplankton-rich waters. These cultures observed that fish, shellfish, and marine mammals feeding in areas with abundant phytoplankton blooms were particularly nutritious.

However, there is limited historical evidence of these cultures directly harvesting and consuming phytoplankton itself. The scientific study of marine phytoplankton began in earnest in the 19th century, with German naturalist Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg and others documenting various species and their characteristics. By the early 20th century, scientists had established phytoplankton’s crucial role in ocean ecosystems and global oxygen production. The potential of marine microalgae as a food source gained attention during the mid-20th century, particularly in the context of space travel and sustainable food production.

NASA conducted significant research on microalgae, including marine species, as potential food sources for long-duration space missions, appreciating their efficient nutrient production in closed systems. Commercial interest in marine phytoplankton as a nutritional supplement emerged in the 1980s and 1990s, coinciding with growing consumer interest in ‘superfoods’ and natural health products. Early commercial products were primarily derived from wild-harvested marine phytoplankton, which presented challenges in consistency and quality control. The development of controlled cultivation methods in the 1990s and early 2000s, particularly closed photobioreactor systems, revolutionized marine phytoplankton production.

These systems allowed for the cultivation of specific strains under optimal conditions, ensuring consistent nutrient profiles and eliminating concerns about environmental contaminants. Scientific research on marine phytoplankton’s health benefits accelerated in the early 2000s, with studies investigating its antioxidant properties, omega-3 fatty acid content, and potential applications for various health conditions. The discovery of marine phytoplankton’s exceptionally stable form of superoxide dismutase (SOD) further increased interest in its potential health applications. In recent years, marine phytoplankton has gained recognition for its sustainability as a nutrient source.

It requires significantly less resources (water, land, energy) per unit of nutrition compared to terrestrial crops and can be cultivated using seawater rather than freshwater, addressing growing concerns about resource scarcity. Today, marine phytoplankton supplements are available in various forms, from liquid concentrates to powders and capsules. Different species and strains are cultivated for their specific nutrient profiles and bioactive compounds, with Nannochloropsis gaditana, Phaeodactylum tricornutum, and Tetraselmis species being among the most commonly used in supplements. While still considered a specialty supplement rather than a mainstream nutritional product, marine phytoplankton continues to gain popularity as research expands our understanding of its potential health benefits and as sustainable nutrition becomes increasingly important in the face of global environmental challenges.

No comprehensive meta-analyses specifically focused on Marine Phytoplankton have been published to date., Marine phytoplankton has been included in broader reviews of microalgae: Wells ML, et al. Algae as nutritional and functional food sources: revisiting our understanding. Journal of Applied Phycology. 2017;29(2):949-982.

Marine Phytoplankton Extract for Oxidative Stress Reduction in Athletes (PHYTO-SPORT-2023), Effects of Nannochloropsis gaditana on Cardiovascular Risk Factors (NANNO-HEART-2022), Comparative Bioavailability of EPA from Different Marine Sources (MARINE-EPA-2023), Marine Phytoplankton Supplementation for Mitochondrial Function in Aging (PHYTO-MITO-2022)